{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T22:57:30Z","timestamp":1778885850255,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,5]],"date-time":"2024-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725494400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":5,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>In the architectural exterior design domain, design intent is usually expressed by textual design intent [e.g., client needs, architectural language (AL)] and non-verbal design intent (e.g., sketch). However, existing generative AI-based methods for automated architectural exterior conceptual design can only use the general image description as the prompt. Thus, despite its potential, existing generative image AI cannot produce appropriate design alternatives that meet various design requirements. Enabling automated architectural exterior conceptual design requires solving two problems: teaching the AI model to understand textual design intent and allowing generative AI to combine textual design intent with non-verbal design intent. The study aims to propose an automated architectural exterior conceptual design approach by incorporating domain-specific prompting strategies and sketch-to-image synthesis into fine-tuned generative image AI models. In the proposed approach, textual design intent annotations (including client needs and AL) are added to architectural images and general image description annotations. Web crawler and ChatGPT automatically extract design intent-related annotations from online sources for famous architectural works that are used as training images. The constructed dataset is then used to fine-tune a generative AI model [i.e., Stable Diffusion (SD)] via the Lora algorithm, teaching the AI model to understand textual design intent. Also, ControlNet is used to control the generation process of the SD model to enable the generative AI to reflect the design intent expressed by the sketches. The proposed approach is validated by comparing generated images from our approach with those from two existing models. The results show that the proposed method can successfully generate architectural exterior conceptual design images that fulfil the requirements based on the architectural design intent. The proposed approach is expected to streamline and facilitate time-consuming and demanding iterative processes during a conceptual design phase.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwae077","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,5]],"date-time":"2024-09-05T19:02:49Z","timestamp":1725562969000},"page":"125-142","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Generative AI-powered architectural exterior conceptual design based on the design intent"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6560-9576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mengnan","family":"Shi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University , Hung Hom, Kowloon, 999077 , Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"JoonOh","family":"Seo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University , Hung Hom, Kowloon, 999077 , Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3426-6865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seung Hyun","family":"Cha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Culture Technology, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology , Daejeon, 34141 , Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bo","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geospatial Engineering, Michigan Technological University , Houghton, MI 49931 , USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hung-Lin","family":"Chi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University , Hung Hom, Kowloon, 999077 , Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib1","volume-title":"Amazon Mechanical Turk (Mturk)","author":"Amazon","year":"2024"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.52842\/conf.acadia.2003.325","article-title":"Architectural applications of complex adaptive systems","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2003 Annual Conference of the Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture","author":"Anzalone","year":"2003"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.2478\/aup-2019-0013","article-title":"Parametric design concept in architectural studies","volume-title":"Architecture and Urban Planning","author":"Baltus","year":"2019"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2021.103550","article-title":"Artificial intelligence applied to conceptual design. A review of its use in architecture","volume-title":"Automation in Construction","author":"Castro\u00a0Pena","year":"2021"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwaa045","article-title":"Use of electroencephalogram and long short-term memory networks to recognize design preferences of users toward architectural design alternatives","volume":"7","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2285","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13092285","article-title":"Using artificial intelligence to generate master-quality architectural designs from text descriptions","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Buildings"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1356682.1356684","article-title":"Sketching reality: realistic interpretation of architectural designs","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG)"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10573","DOI":"10.3390\/su151310573","article-title":"Locally based architectural construction strategies in rural China: textual analysis of architects\u2019 Design thinking","volume-title":"Sustainability","author":"Chen","year":"2023"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib9","article-title":"The use of Cellular Automata to explore bottom up architectonic rules","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Eurographics UK Chapter 14th Annual Conference","author":"Coates","year":"1996"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e16757","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e16757","article-title":"What\u2019s in a text-to-image prompt? The potential of stable diffusion in visual arts education","volume-title":"Heliyon","author":"Dehouche","year":"2023"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-011-9217-y","article-title":"Architectural space planning using evolutionary computing approaches: a review","volume":"36","author":"Dutta","year":"2011","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence Review"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foar.2018.01.003","article-title":"Concept evolution in architectural design: an octonary framework","volume-title":"Frontiers of Architectural Research","author":"Eilouti","year":"2018"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1706.07068","article-title":"Can: Creative adversarial networks, generating \u201cart\u201d by learning about styles and deviating from style norms","author":"Elgammal","year":"2017"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib14","volume-title":"Veras","author":"EvolveLAB","year":"2024"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwae014","article-title":"UDGAN: a new urban design inspiration approach driven by using Generative Adversarial Networks","volume":"11","author":"Gan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1406.2661","article-title":"Generative adversarial nets","volume-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems","author":"Goodfellow","year":"2014"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/13602360110114759","article-title":"Frank Gehry: roofing, wrapping, and wrapping the roof","volume":"7","author":"Hartoonian","year":"2010","journal-title":"The Journal of Architecture"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3133956.3134012","article-title":"Deep models under the GAN: Information leakage from collaborative deep learning","volume-title":"Proceedings of the ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security","author":"Hitaj","year":"2017"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2106.09685","article-title":"Lora: low-rank adaptation of large language models","author":"Hu","year":"2021"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwae017","article-title":"Generative artificial intelligence and building design: early photorealistic render visualization of fa\u00e7ades using local identity-trained models","volume":"11","author":"Jo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1068\/b36032","article-title":"A review of the presence and use of fractal geometry in architectural design","volume-title":"Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design","author":"Joye","year":"2011"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwae025","article-title":"Reimagining space layout design through deep reinforcement learning","volume":"11","author":"Kakooee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.22616\/j.landarchart.2018.13.10","article-title":"3D printing technology as a method for discovering new creative opportunities for architecture and design","volume":"13","author":"Kr\u016bgelis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Landscape Archit. Art"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV51070.2023.00191","article-title":"Do DALL-E and Flamingo understand each other","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision","author":"Li","year":"2023"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib26","volume-title":"Architecture AI Design Assistant(mnml.ai)","author":"Mnml.ai","year":"2024"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aei.2007.03.003","article-title":"A geometric modelling framework for conceptual structural design from early digital architectural models","volume":"22","author":"Mora","year":"2008","journal-title":"Advanced Engineering Informatics"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib28","first-page":"(pp. 40","article-title":"What is the Bonferroni correction?","volume-title":"Aaos Now","author":"Napierala","year":"2024"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3581783.3611867","article-title":"Degeneration-tuning: Using scrambled grid shield unwanted concepts from stable diffusion","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 31st ACM International Conference on Multimedia","author":"Ni","year":"2023"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2204.13988","article-title":"Prompt engineering for text-based generative art","author":"Oppenlaender","year":"2022"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib31","volume-title":"Blurring the Boundaries between Real and Artificial in Architecture and Urban Design through the Use of Artificial Intelligence","author":"P\u00e9rez","year":"2024"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1450013","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219649214500130","article-title":"A technique to capture multi-disciplinary tacit knowledge during the conceptual design phase of a building project","volume":"13","author":"Pourzolfaghar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Information & Knowledge Management"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1007\/s001700200207","article-title":"Conceptual design using evolution strategy","volume":"20","author":"Qiu","year":"2002","journal-title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2011.11.003","article-title":"Optimisation of curtain wall fa\u00e7ades for office buildings by means of PSO algorithm","volume":"45","author":"Rapone","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy and Buildings"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52729.2023.02155","article-title":"Dreambooth: Fine tuning text-to-image diffusion models for subject-driven generation","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition","author":"Ruiz","year":"2023"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25278","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2210.08402","article-title":"Laion-5b: An open large-scale dataset for training next generation image-text models","volume-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems","author":"Schuhmann","year":"2022"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/ISQED.2014.6783307","article-title":"Integrated particle swarm optimization (i-PSO): An adaptive design space exploration framework for power-performance tradeoff in architectural synthesis","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design","author":"Sengupta","year":"2014"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1080\/0305215X.2014.963068","article-title":"Conceptual design optimization of rectilinear building frames: A knapsack problem approach","volume-title":"Engineering Optimization","author":"Sharafi","year":"2015"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.134950","article-title":"A comparison study of semantic segmentation networks for crack detection in construction materials","volume-title":"Construction and Building Materials","author":"Shi","year":"2024"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwaa046","article-title":"Deep learning-based extraction of predicate-argument structure (PAS) in building design rule sentences\u2606","volume":"7","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-7439(89)80095-4","article-title":"Analysis of variance (ANOVA)","volume":"6","author":"St","year":"1989","journal-title":"Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib42","volume-title":"Architectural Schoolteacher","author":"Technology","year":"2024"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.3763\/aedm.2008.0095","article-title":"Facilitating client value creation in the conceptual design phase of construction projects: A workshop approach","volume":"6","author":"Thyssen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Architectural Engineering and Design Management"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e11","DOI":"10.1017\/S0890060423000069","article-title":"A study of the evaluation metrics for generative images containing combinational creativity","volume-title":"Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing","author":"Wang","year":"2023"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/SWS.2010.5607455","article-title":"Application of fractals in architectural shape design","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE 2nd Symposium on Web Society","author":"Wen","year":"2010"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1080\/01446193.2013.864780","article-title":"Design configuration with architectural objects: Linking customer requirements with system capabilities in industrialized house-building platforms","volume-title":"Construction Management and Economics","author":"Wikberg","year":"2014"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1007\/s12273-008-8107-y","article-title":"Building simulation as assistance in the conceptual design","volume-title":"Building Simulation","author":"Xia","year":"2008"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2103","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwac100","article-title":"Differential evolutionary cuckoo-search-integrated tabu-adaptive pattern search (DECS-TAPS): A novel multihybrid variant of swarm intelligence and evolutionary algorithm in architectural design optimization and automation","volume":"9","author":"Yi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV51070.2023.00355","article-title":"Adding conditional control to text-to-image diffusion models","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision","author":"Zhang","year":"2023"},{"key":"2024091612410237600_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwab005","article-title":"Using artificial neural network and WebGL to algorithmically optimize window wall ratios of high-rise office buildings","volume":"8","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering"}],"container-title":["Journal of Computational Design and Engineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcde\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/jcde\/qwae077\/59022307\/qwae077.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcde\/article-pdf\/11\/5\/125\/59140299\/qwae077.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcde\/article-pdf\/11\/5\/125\/59140299\/qwae077.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,16]],"date-time":"2024-09-16T13:06:38Z","timestamp":1726491998000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcde\/article\/11\/5\/125\/7749580"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jcde\/qwae077","relation":{},"ISSN":["2288-5048"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2288-5048","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]]}}}