{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T05:38:40Z","timestamp":1776058720149,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,27]],"date-time":"2025-12-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766793600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Technology Plan of Guizhou Province","award":["QKHZC[2023]124"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QKHZC[2023]124"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62373116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62373116"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62163007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62163007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004001","name":"Science and Technology Foundation of Guizhou Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["QKHZC[2023]117"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QKHZC[2023]117"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013076","name":"National Major Science and Technology Projects of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["QKHZC[2023]118"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QKHZC[2023]118"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013076","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>As people age, older adults inevitably experience declines in stability, balance, endurance, and muscle strength, leading to issues with walking ability. To address the limitations of single-function walking ability tests, this study proposes a comprehensive quantitative method for assessing walking ability in older adults based on multi-modal physiological data, including heart rate, surface electromyography, and inertial measurements. First, experimental results from three classic tests\u2014the 10MWT, 6MWT, and TUG\u2014were collected, quantified, graded, and weighted to derive the T-10-6 index, T-10-6 showed excellent agreement with expert consensus (weighted \u03ba = 0.87, 95% CI 0.83\u20130.89; Spearman \u03c1 = 0.91, 95% CI 0.68\u20131.00). Subsequently, a decision tree was used to construct a basic feature assessment system (BFAS), and correlation weight optimization system (CWOS) and a multi-strategy improved balanced optimizer (MSEO) were introduced to perform collaborative optimization of weights and thresholds, ultimately forming the MSEO-TO-CW model. Compared to the T-10-6 benchmark, which integrates the three classic tests, the consistency of MSEO-TO-CW improved from 77.14% to 91.43% (95% CI: 84.87\u201397.99%) using BFAS, and its evaluation results outperformed the classic Holden scale at 82.86% (95% CI: 74.03\u201391.69%), with a consistency rate of 86.67% with clinical expert diagnoses, and external-dataset validation further showed 80% agreement between MSEO-TO-CW and the benchmark. Experiments demonstrated that this method performs optimally in single-feature, single-modality, and multi-modality fusion scenarios, providing an efficient and reliable new tool for the objective assessment of lower limb function and precise rehabilitation training in the elderly.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwaf141","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T12:37:43Z","timestamp":1766752663000},"page":"371-394","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Research on a multidimensional quantitative assessment method for the walking ability of elderly people based on machine learning and multi-strategy balanced optimizers"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Yinhong","family":"An","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Guizhou University , Guiyang, Guizhou 550025 ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5570-1320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ling","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Guizhou University , Guiyang, Guizhou 550025 ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8761-5195","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guanci","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Guizhou University , Guiyang, Guizhou 550025 ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, Guizhou University , Guiyang, Guizhou 550025 ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Donghua","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guizhou Provincial Staff Hospital , Guizhou 550025 ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2013.171","article-title":"Concurrent validity of the 10-meter walk test as compared with the 6-minute walk test in patients with spinal cord injury at various levels of ability","volume":"52","author":"Amatachaya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13102-021-00240-0","article-title":"Estimation of energy expenditure of Nordic walking: A crossover trial","volume":"13","author":"Baek","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Sports Science Medicine and Rehabilitation"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-014-2926-6","article-title":"Walking cadence and mortality among community-dwelling older adults","volume":"29","author":"Brown","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of General Internal Medicine"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2018.11.001","article-title":"Reliability, validity and minimal detectable change of 2-minute walk test, 6-minute walk test and 10-meter walk test in frail older adults with dementia","volume":"115","author":"Chan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Experimental Gerontology"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chaos.2023.114394","article-title":"Optimizing LSTM with multi-strategy improved WOA for robust prediction of high-speed machine tests data","volume":"178","author":"Che","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chaos Solitons & Fractals"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1080\/10749357.2019.1691815","article-title":"Validation of stroke-specific protocols for the 10-meter walk test and 6-minute walk test conducted using 15-meter and 30-meter walkways","volume":"27","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2018.12.035","article-title":"Concurrent validity of the GAITRite electronic walkway and the 10-m walk test for measurement of walking speed after stroke","volume":"68","author":"Cleland","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gait & Posture"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1249\/01.mss.0001156500.16108.39","article-title":"Load And Speed But Not Footwear Affect Heart Rate And Perceived Exertion During Walking","volume":"57","author":"Connors","year":"2025","journal-title":"Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2015.2419317","article-title":"Validation of an Accelerometer to Quantify a Comprehensive Battery of Gait Characteristics in Healthy Older Adults and Parkinson\u2019s Disease: Toward Clinical and at Home Use","volume":"20","author":"Del\u00a0Din","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127088","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2023.127088","article-title":"Orderly charging strategy of electric vehicle based on improved PSO algorithm","volume":"271","author":"Du","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/idap.2019.8875909","article-title":"Investigation of Performance of HHO Algorithm in Solving Global Optimization Problems","volume":"2019","author":"Eker","year":"2019","journal-title":"2019 International Conference on Artificial Intel\u00a0Ligence and Data Processing (IDAP 2019)"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib42_563_031326","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1002\/pri.470","article-title":"Six-minute walking test and the assessment of cardiorespiratory responses during weight-loss programmes in obese children","volume":"16","author":"Elloumi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Physiotherapy Research International"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2019.105190","article-title":"Equilibrium optimizer: A novel optimization algorithm","volume":"191","author":"Faramarzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Knowledge-Based Systems"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3265","DOI":"10.1109\/TFUZZ.2020.3003506","article-title":"Solving Fuzzy Job-Shop Scheduling Problem Using DE Algorithm Improved by a Selection Mechanism","volume":"28","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Fuzzy Systems"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib14","first-page":"919","article-title":"The 6-minute walk: A new measure of exercise capacity in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"132","author":"Guyatt","year":"1985","journal-title":"Canadian Medical Association Journal"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1093\/jcde\/qwae001","article-title":"A new approach for solving global optimization and engineering problems based on modified sea horse optimizer","volume":"11","author":"Hashim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib16","first-page":"200","article-title":"Gait Feature Estimation Method Based on Inertial Sensor","volume":"45","author":"He","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Armamentarii"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1111\/ggi.13034","article-title":"Slow gait speed as a predictor of 1-year cognitive decline in a veterans\u2019 retirement community in southern Taiwan","volume":"17","author":"Hsu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geriatrics & Gerontology International"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.3390\/s23020687","article-title":"Evaluation of Lower-Limb Kinematics during Timed Up and Go (TUG) Test in Subjects with Locomotive Syndrome (LS) Using Wearable Gait Sensors (H-Gait System)","volume":"23","author":"Kataoka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.3390\/s23010556","article-title":"Estimation of Lower Extremity Muscle Activity in Gait Using the Wearable Inertial Measurement Units and Neural Network","volume":"23","author":"Khant","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare10081499","article-title":"Concurrent Validity of GAITRite and the 10-m Walk Test to Measure Gait Speed in Adults with Chronic Ankle Instability","volume":"10","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland)"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2011.2112773","article-title":"Automatic detection of temporal gait parameters in poststroke individuals","volume":"15","author":"Lopez-Meyer","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine: A Publication of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2595","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16142595","article-title":"Enhancing the Performance of Machine Learning and Deep Learning-Based Flood Susceptibility Models by Integrating Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) Algorithm","volume":"16","author":"Mabdeh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering11101000","article-title":"Older Adult Fall Risk Prediction with Deep Learning and Timed Up and Go (TUG) Test Data","volume":"11","author":"Maiora","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioengineering-Basel"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-021-05810-1","article-title":"Structural and functional connections between the autonomic nervous system, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and the immune system: A context and time dependent stress response network","volume":"43","author":"Mueller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurological Sciences\u202f: Official Journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1519\/JPT.0b013e318248e20d","article-title":"Assessing the reliability and validity of a shorter walk test compared with the 10-Meter Walk Test for measurements of gait speed in healthy, older adults","volume":"36","author":"Peters","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy (2001)"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/gns071","article-title":"Development and validation of criterion-referenced clinically relevant fitness standards for maintaining physical independence in later years","volume":"53","author":"Rikli","year":"2013","journal-title":"The Gerontologist"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1394591","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2024.1394591","article-title":"Evidence of spontaneous cardiac-locomotor coupling during daily activities in healthy adults","volume":"15","author":"Rosato","year":"2024","journal-title":"Frontiers in Physiology"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2466-10-31","article-title":"The six minute walk test accurately estimates mean peak oxygen uptake","volume":"10","author":"Ross","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMC Pulmonary Medicine"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib30","first-page":"541","article-title":"Northern Bald Ibis Optimization Algorithm: Theory and Application","volume-title":"Proceedings of 2018 IEEE 17th International Conference on Cognitive Informatics & Cognitive Computing (ICCI*CC 2018)","author":"Saidala","year":"2018"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"015003","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6579\/ac43c1","article-title":"The effect of passive lower limb training on heart rate asymmetry","volume":"43","author":"Shi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Physiological Measurement"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.3390\/life15091386","article-title":"Comparison of Time-Frequency Characteristics of Lower Limb EMG Signals Among Different Foot Strike Patterns During Running Using the EEMD Algorithm","volume":"15","author":"Shi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Life-Basel"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1354362","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/1354362","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Thirty-One Assessment Tests to Evaluate Mobility in Older Adults","volume":"2019","author":"Soubra","year":"2019","journal-title":"BioMed Research International"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"d7679","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.d7679","article-title":"How fast does the Grim Reaper walk? Receiver operating characteristics curve analysis in healthy men aged 70 and over","volume":"343","author":"Stanaway","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2318-7-1","article-title":"The association between timed up and go test and history of falls: The Troms\u00f8 study","volume":"7","author":"Thrane","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMC Geriatrics"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afw185","article-title":"The relative temporal sequence of decline in mobility and cognition among initially unimpaired older adults: Results from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging","volume":"46","author":"Tian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Age and Ageing"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-016-1423-5","article-title":"Proceedings of the 3rd IPLeiria\u2019s International Health Congress: Leiria, Portugal. 6-7 May 2016","volume":"16","author":"Tom\u00e1s","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Health Services Research"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968306297861","article-title":"Assessment of walking speed and distance in subjects with an incomplete spinal cord injury","volume":"21","author":"van\u00a0Hedel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2005.00580.x","article-title":"Epidemiology of gait disorders in community-residing older adults","volume":"54","author":"Verghese","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of the American Geriatrics Society"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-018-02126-8","article-title":"sEMG Based Gait Phase Recognition for Children with Spastic Cerebral Palsy","volume":"47","author":"Wei","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annals of Biomedical Engineering"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7314","DOI":"10.3390\/s110807314","article-title":"Real-time gait cycle parameter recognition using a wearable accelerometry system","volume":"11","author":"Yang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)"},{"key":"2026011413245085200_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5404","DOI":"10.3390\/s23125404","article-title":"Prediction of Joint Angles Based on Human Lower Limb Surface Electromyography","volume":"23","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sensors"}],"container-title":["Journal of Computational Design and Engineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcde\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/jcde\/qwaf141\/66138285\/qwaf141.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcde\/article-pdf\/13\/1\/371\/66138285\/qwaf141.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcde\/article-pdf\/13\/1\/371\/66138285\/qwaf141.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T18:24:59Z","timestamp":1768415099000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcde\/article\/13\/1\/371\/8405687"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,27]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jcde\/qwaf141","relation":{},"ISSN":["2288-5048"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2288-5048","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,27]]}}}