{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T07:51:31Z","timestamp":1774425091762,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]],"date-time":"2022-11-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669075200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":18,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>Initially the province of telecommunication and early computer-mediated communication (CMC) literature, multiple systematic reviews suggest \u201csocial presence\u201d is now used for an increasingly diverse set of phenomena across various communication settings. Drawing upon Chaffee\u2019s (1991) description of concept explication as the dialectic process between the conceptual and operational aspects of research, this study provides a mixed methods analysis of social presence measures to evaluate construct validity and inform a modified conceptual definition. Results reveal several distinct constructs commonly measured in the empirical literature on social presence, including salience, perceived actorhood, co-location\/non-mediation, understanding, association, involvement, and medium sociability. Based on the frequencies and co-occurrences of these constructs within instruments and across different research fields, we conclude that social presence, in practice, most commonly consists of the perceptual salience of another social actor. Implications for the measurement and theorizing of social presence\u2014and its distinction from other social experiences with media\u2014are then considered.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jcmc\/zmac027","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]],"date-time":"2022-11-22T14:35:00Z","timestamp":1669127700000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Capturing social presence: concept explication through an empirical analysis of social presence measures"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6239-2634","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James J","family":"Cummings","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Emerging Media Studies, College of Communication, Boston University , Boston, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0293-2840","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erin E","family":"Wertz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Emerging Media Studies, College of Communication, Boston University , Boston, USA"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2466\/03.CP.3.4","article-title":"Achieving saturation in thematic analysis: development and refinement of a codebook","volume":"3","author":"Ando","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comprehensive Psychology"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.2307\/2786027","article-title":"Eye-contact, distance and affiliation","volume":"28","author":"Argyle","year":"1965","journal-title":"Sociometry"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B3","first-page":"54","article-title":"Social presence and interpersonal trust in avatar-based, collaborative net-communications","author":"Bente","year":"2004","journal-title":"In\u00a0"},{"issue":"2","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00070.x","article-title":"The Cyborg\u2019s dilemma: progressive embodiment in virtual environments","volume":"3","author":"Biocca","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B65","first-page":"407","author":"Biocca","year":"2001"},{"issue":"5","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1162\/105474603322761270","article-title":"Toward a more robust theory and measure of social presence: review and suggested criteria","volume":"12","author":"Biocca","year":"2003","journal-title":"Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B6","author":"Blalock","year":"1982"},{"issue":"2","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327965PLI1302_01","article-title":"Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology","volume":"13","author":"Blascovich","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychological inquiry"},{"issue":"13","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1796","DOI":"10.5897\/ERR2015.2276","article-title":"Integrative review of social presence in distance education: issues and challenges","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Educational Research and Reviews"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B9","volume-title":"Communication concepts 1: Explication","author":"Chaffee","year":"1991"},{"issue":"4","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-012-9192-1","article-title":"Building modern online social presence: a review of social presence theory and its instructional design implications for future trends","volume":"18","author":"Cui","year":"2013","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"issue":"2","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1080\/15213269.2015.1015740","article-title":"How immersive is enough? A meta-analysis of the effect of immersive technology on user presence","volume":"19","author":"Cummings","year":"2016","journal-title":"Media Psychology"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B14","author":"Cummings","year":"2018"},{"issue":"5","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.32.5.554","article-title":"Organizational information requirements, media richness and structural design","volume":"32","author":"Daft","year":"1986","journal-title":"Management Science"},{"issue":"6","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omega.2004.01.006","article-title":"Consumer trust in B2C e-Commerce and the importance of social presence: experiments in E-products and e-services","volume":"32","author":"Gefen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Omega"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B18","volume-title":"The presentation of self in everyday life","author":"Goffman","year":"1959"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B19","first-page":"147","article-title":"Social presence theory and implications for interaction and collaborative learning in computer conferences","volume":"1","author":"Gunawardena","year":"1995","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Telecommunications"},{"issue":"3","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1080\/08923649709526970","article-title":"Social presence as a predictor of satisfaction within a computer-mediated conferencing environment","volume":"11","author":"Gunawardena","year":"1997","journal-title":"American Journal of Distance Education"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3726\/b14399","volume-title":"Human\u2013machine communication (","author":"Guzman","year":"2018"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B22","volume-title":"Seventh annual international workshop: presence","author":"Harms","year":"2004"},{"issue":"2","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.1992.1.2.262","article-title":"Being there: the subjective experience of presence","volume":"1","author":"Heeter","year":"1992","journal-title":"Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments"},{"issue":"3","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1080\/00332747.1956.11023049","article-title":"Mass communication and para-social interaction: observations on intimacy at a distance","volume":"19","author":"Horton","year":"1956","journal-title":"Psychiatry"},{"issue":"4","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-5915.1997.tb01335.x","article-title":"Media appropriateness: effects of experience on communication media choice","volume":"28","author":"King","year":"1997","journal-title":"Decision Sciences"},{"issue":"3","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1177\/146144480200400303","article-title":"Interactivity: a concept explication","volume":"4","author":"Kiousis","year":"2002","journal-title":"New Media & Society"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B66","first-page":"291","author":"Klimmt","year":"2006"},{"issue":"4","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-010-9135-7","article-title":"Measuring perceived social presence in distributed learning groups","volume":"16","author":"Kreijns","year":"2011","journal-title":"Education and Information Technologies"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-021-09623-8","article-title":"Social presence: conceptualization and measurement","volume":"34","author":"Kreijns","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00302.x","article-title":"Presence, explicated","volume":"14","author":"Lee","year":"2004","journal-title":"Communication Theory"},{"issue":"2","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00072.x","article-title":"At the heart of it all: the concept of presence","volume":"3","author":"Lombard","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B32","author":"Lombard","year":"2009"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-60566-830-7.ch010","volume-title":"Online education and adult learning: New frontiers for teaching practices","author":"Lowenthal","year":"2010"},{"issue":"2","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1080\/01587919.2017.1324727","article-title":"In search of a better understanding of social presence: an investigation into how researchers define social presence","volume":"38","author":"Lowenthal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Distance Education"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2015.04.044","article-title":"Social interaction in a virtual environment: examining socio-spatial interactivity and social presence using behavioral analytics","volume":"51","author":"McCreery","year":"2015","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"issue":"2","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B37","first-page":"1","article-title":"The effective affect: a scoping review of social presence","volume":"33","author":"Mykota","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of e-Learning & Distance Education"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B38","first-page":"72","author":"Nass","year":"1994"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B39","first-page":"211","volume-title":"Research methods for applied psychologists: design, analysis and reporting (","author":"Neuendorf","year":"2019"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2018.00114","article-title":"A systematic review of social presence: definition, antecedents, and implications","volume":"5","author":"Oh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontiers in Robotics and AI"},{"issue":"2","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1080\/01587919.2017.1322456","article-title":"Social presence reconsidered: moving beyond, going back, or killing social presence","volume":"38","author":"\u00d6ztok","year":"2017","journal-title":"Distance Education"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B42","first-page":"277","volume-title":"Communication in the age of virtual reality","author":"Palmer","year":"1995"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B47","volume-title":"The media equation: How people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places","author":"Reeves","year":"1996"},{"issue":"4","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.3.4.475","article-title":"Task analyzability, use of new medium and effectiveness: a multi-site exploration of media richness","volume":"3","author":"Rice","year":"1992","journal-title":"Organization Science"},{"issue":"4","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2958.1993.tb00309.x","article-title":"Media appropriateness: using social presence theory to compare traditional and new organizational media","volume":"19","author":"Rice","year":"1993","journal-title":"Human Communication Research"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2017.02.001","article-title":"Social presence in relation to students\u2019 satisfaction and learning in the online environment: a meta-analysis","volume":"71","author":"Richardson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"issue":"2","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B51","first-page":"50","article-title":"Assessing social presence in asynchronous text-based computer conferencing","volume":"14","author":"Rourke","year":"2001","journal-title":"International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education"},{"issue":"4","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1162\/105474605774785253","article-title":"Effects of communication mode on social presence, virtual presence, and performance in collaborative virtual environments","volume":"14","author":"Sallin\u00e4s","year":"2005","journal-title":"Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B53","volume-title":"The social psychology of telecommunications","author":"Short","year":"1976"},{"issue":"6","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3134301","article-title":"A survey of presence and related concepts","volume":"50","author":"Skarbez","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR)"},{"issue":"4","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1162\/1054746041944849","article-title":"How colorful was your day? Why questionnaires cannot assess presence in virtual environments","volume":"13","author":"Slater","year":"2004","journal-title":"Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments"},{"issue":"6","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.1997.6.6.603","article-title":"A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments","volume":"6","author":"Slater","year":"1997","journal-title":"Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B57","first-page":"217","article-title":"The newest psychology","volume":"28","author":"Thorndike","year":"1904","journal-title":"Educational Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B58","first-page":"34","article-title":"The measurement of social presence in an online learning environment","volume":"1","author":"Tu","year":"2002","journal-title":"International Journal on E-Learning"},{"issue":"1","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1177\/009365092019001003","article-title":"Interpersonal effects in computer-mediated interaction: a relational perspective","volume":"19","author":"Walther","year":"1992","journal-title":"Communication Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/009365096023001001","article-title":"Computer-mediated communication: impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal interaction","volume":"23","author":"Walther","year":"1996","journal-title":"Communication Research"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B61","first-page":"529","article-title":"Cues filtered out, cues filtered. In","volume":"3","author":"Walther","year":"2002","journal-title":"Handbook of interpersonal communication"},{"issue":"3","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-2466.1998.tb02758.x","article-title":"Appropriateness and effectiveness of communication channels in competent interpersonal communication","volume":"48","author":"Westmyer","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Communication"},{"key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B63","volume-title":"Language within language: immediacy, a channel in verbal communication","author":"Wiener","year":"1968"},{"issue":"5","key":"2022122810213894100_zmac027-B64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1162\/105474603322761261","article-title":"Toward a taxonomy of copresence","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2003","journal-title":"Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments"}],"container-title":["Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcmc\/article-pdf\/28\/1\/zmac027\/48437727\/zmac027.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcmc\/article-pdf\/28\/1\/zmac027\/48437727\/zmac027.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,28]],"date-time":"2022-12-28T10:25:59Z","timestamp":1672223159000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcmc\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/jcmc\/zmac027\/6839981"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Adam","family":"Joinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,4]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,4]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jcmc\/zmac027","relation":{},"ISSN":["1083-6101"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1083-6101","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,4]]},"article-number":"zmac027"}}