{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,27]],"date-time":"2026-01-27T22:28:42Z","timestamp":1769552922552,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,22]],"date-time":"2023-06-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687392000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":10,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Kepley\u00a0Dissertation Research"},{"name":"Department of Communication Arts, University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>How credulous are we when engaging information on social media? Addressing this question, this article aims to understand how individuals\u2019 epistemic vigilance, a set of cognitive mechanisms that comprise our system of precaution in social interactions, may operate and fall short. Reporting findings from two survey experiments (Study 1, N\u2009=\u2009413; Study 2, N\u2009=\u2009392), we show that participants tended to be skeptical toward social media news, were reasonably successful in identifying true news, and reported a tendency to share true rather than false news. In one study, social endorsement enticed a higher accuracy rating of news posts. In both studies, people judged attitudinally congruent news posts as being more accurate and reported a higher likelihood to share them. Individuals\u2019 propensity to reflective thinking measured by cognitive reflection test potentially operated as a restraint on sharing inaccurate information and bolstered veracity anchoring in their information engagement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jcmc\/zmad021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,24]],"date-time":"2023-06-24T19:19:44Z","timestamp":1687634384000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Facts are hard to come by: discerning and sharing factual information on social media"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7093-6945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fangjing","family":"Tu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication Arts, University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison , Madison, WI 53706, USA"}]},{"given":"Zhongdang","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication Arts, University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison , Madison, WI 53706, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1593-2399","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinle","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication Arts, University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison , Madison, WI 53706, USA"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,22]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.31.2.211","article-title":"Social media and fake news in the 2016 election","volume":"31","author":"Allcott","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Perspective"},{"issue":"6","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444820969893","article-title":"Why do so few people share fake news? It hurts their reputation","volume":"24","author":"Altay,","journal-title":"New Media & Society"},{"issue":"5","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B3","first-page":"1","article-title":"Exposure to social engagement metrics increase vulnerability to misinformation","volume":"1","author":"Avram","year":"2020","journal-title":"The Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review"},{"issue":"8","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1608","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000729","article-title":"Fake news, fast and slow: deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines","volume":"149","author":"Bago","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"issue":"1","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691620986135","article-title":"A signal detection approach to understanding the identification of fake news","volume":"17","author":"Batailler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Perspectives on Psychological Science"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B6","volume-title":"Network propaganda: Manipulation, misinformation, and radicalization of American politics","author":"Benkler","year":"2019"},{"issue":"4","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444819893980","article-title":"The unedited public sphere","volume":"22","author":"Bimber","year":"2020","journal-title":"New Media & Society"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327957pspr1003_2","article-title":"Accuracy of deception judgments","volume":"10","author":"Bond","year":"2006","journal-title":"Personality and Social Psychology Review"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1080\/10584609.2016.1226223","article-title":"Social endorsement cues and political participation","volume":"34","author":"Bond","year":"2017","journal-title":"Political Communication"},{"issue":"1","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B7846249","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1177\/0032321719890811","article-title":"Truth, deliberative democracy, and the virtues of accuracy: is fake news destroying the public sphere?","volume":"69","author":"Chambers","journal-title":"Political Studies"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1093\/hcr\/hqz001","article-title":"Documenting the truth-default: The low frequency of spontaneous unprompted veracity assessments in deception detection","volume":"45","author":"Clare,","journal-title":"Human Communication Research"},{"issue":"4","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1177\/0261927X17744004","article-title":"Truth bias and partisan bias in political deception detection","volume":"37","author":"Clementson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Language and Social Psychology"},{"issue":"13","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2019.1623904","article-title":"Too good to be true, too good not to share: the social utility of fake news","volume":"23","author":"Duffy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Information, Communication & Society"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1080\/23808985.2019.1602782","article-title":"Fake news as a two-dimensional phenomenon: A framework and research agenda","volume":"43","author":"Egelhofer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annals of the International Communication Association"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691612460685","article-title":"Dual-process theories of high cognition: advancing the debate","volume":"8","author":"Evans","year":"2013","journal-title":"Perspectives on Psychological Science"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1080\/13183222.2018.1463047","article-title":"Fake news as a floating signifier: hegemony, antagonism and the politics of falsehood","volume":"25","author":"Farkas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Javnost: The Public"},{"issue":"5","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B16","first-page":"903","article-title":"Knowledge does not protect against illusory truth","volume":"144","author":"Fazio","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429203787-7","volume-title":"Psychology of gullibility: Fake news, conspiracy theories, and irrational beliefs","author":"Fiedler","year":"2019"},{"issue":"4","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1257\/089533005775196732","article-title":"Cognitive reflection and decision making","volume":"19","author":"Frederick","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Perspectives"},{"issue":"4","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1037\/a0015701","article-title":"Feeling validated versus feeling correct: a meta-analysis of selective exposure to information","volume":"135","author":"Hart","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B20","author":"Jurkowitz","year":"2020"},{"issue":"46","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2100786118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2100786118","article-title":"Comparing information diffusion mechanisms by matching on cascade size","volume":"118","author":"Juul","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B22","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Emerging trends in the social and behavioral science","author":"Kahan","year":"2016"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/2056305115610141","article-title":"News sharing in social media: a review of current research on news sharing users, content, and networks","volume":"1","author":"K\u00fcmpel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Social Media + Society"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.108.3.480","article-title":"The case for motivated reasoning","volume":"108","author":"Kunda","year":"1990","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"issue":"4","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1177\/0261927X14535916","article-title":"Truth-default theory (TDT): a theory of human deception and deception detection","volume":"33","author":"Levine","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Language and Social Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1080\/03637759909376468","article-title":"Accuracy in detecting truths and lies: documenting the \u201cveracity effect","volume":"66","author":"Levine","year":"1999","journal-title":"Communication Monographs"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1177\/0093650220921321","article-title":"Credibility perceptions and detection accuracy of fake news headlines on social media: Effects of truth-bias and endorsement cues","volume":"49","author":"Luo,","journal-title":"Communication Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1177\/1065912920938143","article-title":"Disinformation as a threat to deliberative democracy","volume":"74","author":"McKay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Political Research Quarterly"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-2466.2006.00003.x","article-title":"The effects of negativity and motivated information processing during a political campaign","volume":"56","author":"Meffert","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Communication"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B30","volume-title":"Not born yesterday","author":"Mercier","year":"2020"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B31","volume-title":"The enigma of reason","author":"Mercier","year":"2017"},{"issue":"8","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1177\/0093650212466406","article-title":"Selective exposure in the age of social media: endorsements trump partisan source affiliation when selecting news online","volume":"41","author":"Messing","year":"2014","journal-title":"Communication Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764219878224","article-title":"\u201cFake news\u201d is not simply false information: a concept explication and taxonomy of online content","volume":"65","author":"Molina","year":"2021","journal-title":"American Behavioral Scientist"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0228882","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0228882","article-title":"Self-reported willingness to share political news articles in online surveys correlates with actual sharing on Twitter","volume":"15","author":"Mosleh","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003055421000290","article-title":"Partisan polarization is the primary psychological motivation behind political fake news sharing on Twitter","volume":"115","author":"Osmundsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"American Political Science Review"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03344-2","article-title":"Shifting attention to accuracy can reduce misinformation online","volume":"592","author":"Pennycook","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2015.05.001","article-title":"What makes us think? A three-stage dual-process model of analytic engagement","volume":"80","author":"Pennycook","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.06.011","article-title":"Lazy, not biased: susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning","volume":"188","author":"Pennycook","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"5","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2021.02.007","article-title":"The psychology of fake news","volume":"25","author":"Pennycook","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1002\/bdm.1883","article-title":"The developing and testing of a new version of the cognitive reflection test applying item response theory (IRT)","volume":"29","author":"Primi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Decision Making"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0017.2010.01394.x","article-title":"Epistemic vigilance","volume":"25","author":"Sperber","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mind & Language"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jarmac.2015.06.002","article-title":"ALIED: humans as adaptive lie detectors","volume":"4","author":"Street","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition"},{"issue":"1","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1111\/sipr.12077","article-title":"Political psychology in the digital (mis)information age: a model of news belief and sharing","volume":"15","author":"Van Bavel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Social Issues and Policy Review"},{"key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199970773.001.0001","volume-title":"The culture of connectivity: A critical history of social media","author":"Van Dijck","year":"2013"},{"issue":"6380","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aap9559","article-title":"The spread of true and false news online","volume":"359","author":"Vosoughi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062310493327400_zmad021-B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2019.1637445","article-title":"News literacy, social media behaviors, and skepticism toward information on social media","volume":"24","author":"Vraga","year":"2021","journal-title":"Information, Communication & Society"}],"container-title":["Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcmc\/article-pdf\/28\/4\/zmad021\/50684035\/zmad021.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcmc\/article-pdf\/28\/4\/zmad021\/50684035\/zmad021.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,24]],"date-time":"2023-06-24T20:19:58Z","timestamp":1687637998000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jcmc\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/jcmc\/zmad021\/7205487"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Stromer-Galley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jcmc\/zmad021","relation":{},"ISSN":["1083-6101"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1083-6101","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]},"article-number":"zmad021"}}