{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T13:20:49Z","timestamp":1779888049886,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]],"date-time":"2022-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648771200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,24]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>This paper makes a first step towards a logic of learning from experiments. For this, we investigate formal frameworks for modeling the interaction of causal and (qualitative) epistemic reasoning. Crucial for our approach is the idea that the notion of an intervention can be used as a formal expression of a (real or hypothetical) experiment (Pearl, 2009, Causality. Models, Reasoning, and Inference, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; Woodward, 2003, Making Things Happen, vol. 114 of Oxford Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Oxford University Press). In a first step we extend a causal model (Briggs, 2012, Philosophical Studies, 160, 139\u2013166; Galles and Pearl, 1998, An axiomatic characterisation of causal counterfactuals. Foundations of Science, 3, 151\u2013182; Halpern, 2000, Axiomatizing causal reasoning. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 12, 317\u2013337; Pearl, 2009, Causality. Models, Reasoning, and Inference, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge) with a simple Hintikka-style representation of the epistemic state of an agent. In the resulting setting, one can talk about the knowledge of an agent and information update. The resulting logic can model reasoning about thought experiments. However, it is unable to account for learning from experiments, which is clearly brought out by the fact that it validates the principle of no learning for interventions. Therefore, in a second step, we implement a more complex notion of knowledge (Nozick, 1981, Philosophical Explanations. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts) that allows an agent to observe (measure) certain variables when an experiment is carried out. This extended system does allow for learning from experiments. For all the proposed logics, we provide a sound and complete axiomatization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/logcom\/exac011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]],"date-time":"2022-03-28T11:09:07Z","timestamp":1648465747000},"page":"1152-1185","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Observing interventions: a logic for thinking about experiments"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"33","author":[{"given":"Fausto","family":"Barbero","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Philosophy, History and Art Studies University of Helsinki PL 24 (Unioninkatu 40) 00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katrin","family":"Schulz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Logic, Language and Computation (ILLC) Faculty of Science University of Amsterdam Science Park 107 1098 XG Amsterdam The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fernando R","family":"Vel\u00e1zquez-Quesada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Science and Media Studies, Universitetet i Bergen . Bergen, 5020, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaibo","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Philosophy, Tsinghua University , 100084, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023090708034518600_ref1","first-page":"821","article-title":"14 Hybrid logics","volume-title":"Handbook of Modal Logic","author":"Areces","year":"2006"},{"key":"2023090708034518600_ref2","first-page":"135","article-title":"To know is to know the value of a variable","volume":"11","author":"Baltag","year":"2016","journal-title":"Advances in Modal Logic"},{"key":"2023090708034518600_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-008-9369-8","article-title":"Probabilistic dynamic belief revision","volume":"165","author":"Baltag","year":"2008","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"key":"2023090708034518600_ref4","first-page":"43","article-title":"The logic of public announcements, common knowledge, and private suspicions","volume-title":"TARK","author":"Baltag","year":"1998"},{"key":"2023090708034518600_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-53487-5_8","article-title":"Causal agency and responsibility: a refinement of STIT logic","volume-title":"Logic in High Definition: Trends in Logical Semantics","author":"Baltag","year":"2021"},{"key":"2023090708034518600_ref6","first-page":"16","article-title":"Proceedings 3rd Workshop on formal reasoning about Causation, Responsibility, and Explanations in Science and Technology","volume-title":"EPTCS","author":"Finkbeiner","year":"2019"},{"key":"2023090708034518600_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/s10992-020-09573-6","article-title":"Team semantics for interventionist counterfactuals: observations vs. interventions","volume":"50","author":"Barbero","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Philosophical Logic"},{"key":"2023090708034518600_ref8","first-page":"73","article-title":"Counterfactuals and dependencies on causal teams: expressive power and deduction systems","volume-title":"13th Conference on Advances in Modal Logic, AiML 2020, Helsinki, Finland, August 24\u201328, 2020","author":"Barbero","year":"2020"},{"key":"2023090708034518600_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-65840-3_2","article-title":"Thinking about causation: a causal language with epistemic operators","volume-title":"Dynamic Logic. 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