{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,20]],"date-time":"2026-06-20T14:26:09Z","timestamp":1781965569832,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,29]],"date-time":"2021-05-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622246400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Against a background of declining blood donor numbers, recruiting new donors is critical for the effective operations of healthcare providers. Thus, interventions are needed to recruit new blood donors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>We provide initial evidence for Voluntary Reciprocal Altruism (VRA) to enhance nondonors\u2019 willingness to become blood donors. VRA interventions involve asking two questions: one on accepting a blood transfusion if needed and one on willingness to donate. As early trials often use self-reports of willingness to perform blood donation behavior, we derive a correction factor to better estimate actual behavior. Finally, we explore the effect of VRA interventions on two prosocial emotions: gratitude and guilt.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Across three experiments (two in the UK and one in Australia: Total N = 1,208 nondonors) we manipulate VRA messages and explore how they affect both reported willingness to make a one-off or repeat blood donation and influence click through to blood donation, organ donation and volunteering registration sites (behavioral proxies). We report data from a longitudinal cohort (N = 809) that enables us to derive a correction for self-reported behavioral willingness.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Across the three experiments, we show that exposure to a question that asks about accepting a transfusion if needed increased willingness to donate blood with some spillover to organ donor registration. We also show that gratitude has an independent effect on donation and report a behavioral correction factor of .10.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Asking nondonors about accepting a transfusion if needed is likely to be an effective strategy to increase new donor numbers.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/abm\/kaab026","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,29]],"date-time":"2021-05-29T12:28:27Z","timestamp":1622291307000},"page":"89-99","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Simple Reciprocal Fairness Message to Enhance Non-Donor\u2019s Willingness to Donate Blood"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"56","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7678-1451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eamonn","family":"Ferguson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1169-1738","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abigail R A","family":"Edwards","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4067, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9385-6497","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara M","family":"Masser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4067, Australia"},{"name":"Australia and Clinical Services and Research, Australian Red Cross Lifeblood, Melbourne 3004, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1080\/08870446.2019.1603385","article-title":"Blood and organ donation: health impact, prevalence, correlates, and interventions","volume":"34","author":"Ferguson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol Health."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0002","author":"World Health Organization"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1537-2995.2007.01129.x","article-title":"Impact of demographic changes on the blood supply: Mecklenburg-West Pomerania as a model region for Europe","volume":"47","author":"Greinacher","year":"2007","journal-title":"Transfusion."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transci.2011.06.001","article-title":"Donor recruitment in the 21st century: Challenges and lessons learned in the first decade","volume":"45","author":"Carter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transfus Apher Sci."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.13696","article-title":"Changes in blood center red blood cell distributions in the era of patient blood management: the trends for collection (TFC) study","volume":"56","author":"Yazer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transfusion."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1159\/000313949","article-title":"Demographic changes: the impact for safe blood supply","volume":"37","author":"Greinacher","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transfus Med Hemother."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1516","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.74.6.1516","article-title":"Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: a functional approach","volume":"74","author":"Clary","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1559-1816.1994.tb01548.x","article-title":"Matching messages to motives in persuasion: a functional approach to promoting volunteerism","volume":"24","author":"Clary","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Appl Soc Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5000280","article-title":"Voluntary reciprocal altruism: a novel strategy to encourage deceased organ donation","volume":"69","author":"Landry","year":"2006","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1111\/vox.12080","article-title":"Defining and measuring blood donor altruism: a theoretical approach from biology, economics and psychology","volume":"106","author":"Evans","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vox Sang."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-6133.27.3.327","article-title":"Blood donation is an act of benevolence rather than altruism","volume":"27","author":"Ferguson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Health Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1537-2995.2011.03279.x","article-title":"Exploring the pattern of blood donor beliefs in first-time, novice, and experienced donors: differentiating reluctant altruism, pure altruism, impure altruism, and warm glow","volume":"52","author":"Ferguson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transfusion."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2189","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1537-2995.2011.03557.x","article-title":"Blood donors\u2019 helping behavior is driven by warm glow: more evidence for the blood donor benevolence hypothesis","volume":"52","author":"Ferguson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transfusion."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1111\/vox.12636","article-title":"It is only fair: blood donors are more sensitive to violations of fairness norms than nondonors\u2014converging psychometric and ultimatum game evidence","volume":"113","author":"Ferguson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vox Sang."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-018-2855-5","article-title":"Effect of persuasive messages on National Health Service Organ Donor Registrations: a pragmatic quasi-randomised controlled trial with one million UK road taxpayers","volume":"19","author":"Sallis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trials."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167209335166","article-title":"From willingness to intention: experience moderates the shift from reactive to reasoned behavior","volume":"35","author":"Pomery","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pers Soc Psychol Bull."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1080\/10463283.2016.1245940","article-title":"The question-behaviour effect: A theoretical and methodological review and meta-analysis","volume":"27","author":"Wilding","year":"2016","journal-title":"Euro Rev Soc Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican1062-93","article-title":"Cognitive dissonance","volume":"207","author":"Festinger","year":"1962","journal-title":"Sci Am."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1093\/abm\/kay060","article-title":"The effect of reciprocity priming on organ donor registration intentions and behavior","volume":"53","author":"O\u2019Carroll","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann Behav Med."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-6237.2012.00896.x","article-title":"The impact of a pledge request and the promise of publicity: a randomized controlled trial of charitable donations","volume":"94","author":"Cotterill","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc Sci Quart"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916511411477","article-title":"Commitment and behavior change: a meta-analysis and critical review of commitment-making strategies in environmental research","volume":"45","author":"Lokhorst","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ Behav"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1037\/a0033505","article-title":"Promoting the return of lapsed blood donors: a seven-arm randomized controlled trial of the question-behavior effect","volume":"33","author":"Godin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Health Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s12160-012-9449-3","article-title":"Does questionnaire distribution promote blood donation? An investigation of question\u2013behavior effects","volume":"45","author":"van Dongen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anns Beha Med"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-6133.21.5.513","article-title":"Predicting future blood donor returns: past behavior, intentions, and observer effects","volume":"21","author":"Ferguson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Health Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.2307\/2786758","article-title":"Role identity and reasoned action in the prediction of repeated behavior","volume":"51","author":"Charng","year":"1988","journal-title":"Soc Psychol Quart."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1177\/1359105305051423","article-title":"A stage model of blood donor behaviour: assessing volunteer behaviour","volume":"10","author":"Ferguson","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Health Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0027","first-page":"6339","article-title":"Altruistic and warm-glow motivations: variation by blood donor career","volume":"29","author":"Ferguson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Testing, Psychomet Method Appl Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.74.5.1164","article-title":"Reasoned action and social reaction: willingness and intention as independent predictors of health risk","volume":"74","author":"Gibbons","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1159\/000501917","article-title":"Beyond description\u2014the predictive role of affect, memory and context on blood donors\u2019 decision-making","volume":"7","author":"Masser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transfus Med Hemoth"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0030","article-title":"Emotions and pro-sociality: Lessons for Blood Donation","volume-title":"\u201cAffective Determinants of Health-Related Behavior.\u201d","author":"Ferguson","year":"2018"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0031","article-title":"The Impact of Temporal Trajectories of Emotional Experience on Blood Donor Return","author":"van Dongen","journal-title":"Anns Behav Med"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000103","article-title":"Does gratitude enhance prosociality?: A meta-analytic review","volume":"143","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol Bull."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8287.1996.tb00510.x","article-title":"Predictors of future behaviour: a review of the psychological literature on blood donation","volume":"1","author":"Ferguson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Br J Health Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46709","DOI":"10.1038\/srep46709","article-title":"Guilty repair sustains cooperation, angry retaliation destroys it","volume":"7","author":"Skatova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci Reps."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2098","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.12588","article-title":"The blood donor identity survey: a multidimensional measure of blood donor motivations","volume":"54","author":"France","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transfusion."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.321.7262.694","article-title":"Framework for design and evaluation of complex interventions to improve health","volume":"321","author":"Campbell","year":"2000","journal-title":"BMJ."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1136\/jech-2013-203118","article-title":"Adverse effects of public health interventions: a conceptual framework","volume":"68","author":"Lorenc","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.15627","article-title":"The impact of age and sex on first-time donor return behavior","volume":"60","author":"Masser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transfusion."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2189","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1537-2995.2011.03141.x","article-title":"A comparison of self-reported and record-linked blood donation history in an Australian cohort","volume":"51","author":"Bertalli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transfusion."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.14986","article-title":"Completeness and accuracy of self-reported history of blood donation: results from a cohort of older adults in Australia","volume":"59","author":"Karki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transfusion."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/14792772143000003","article-title":"Intention-behavior relations: a conceptual and empirical review","volume":"12","author":"Sheeran","year":"2002","journal-title":"Euro Rev Soc Psychol"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1080\/15534510600685409","article-title":"The question-behavior effect: What we know and where we go from here","volume":"1","author":"Sprott","year":"2006","journal-title":"Soc Infl."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-6133.27.2.179","article-title":"Asking questions changes behavior: mere measurement effects on frequency of blood donation","volume":"27","author":"Godin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Health Psychol."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.127.2.249","article-title":"Is gratitude a moral affect?","volume":"127","author":"McCullough","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychol Bull."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.2466\/pr0.2000.87.3f.1039","article-title":"The guilt inventory","volume":"87","author":"Jones","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychol Rep."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1423-0410.2005.00593.x","article-title":"First-year donation patterns predict long-term commitment for first time donors","volume":"88","author":"Schreiber","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vox Sang."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327663jcp1401&2_8","article-title":"The mere-measurement effect: Why does measuring intentions change actual behavior?","volume":"14","author":"Morwitz","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Cons Psychol"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1017\/S1930297500003430","article-title":"Short-sighted greed? Focusing on the future promotes reputation-based generosity","volume":"14","author":"Sj\u00e5stad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Judg Decis Making"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13530","article-title":"Cooperating with the future","volume":"511","author":"Hauser","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2010","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.15913","article-title":"A typology of blood donor motivations","volume":"60","author":"Ferguson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transfusion."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8973","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-65163-1","article-title":"Lone wolf defectors undermine the power of the opt-out default","volume":"10","author":"Ferguson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Reps."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1111\/voxs.12471","article-title":"Blood donor behaviour, motivations and the need for a systematic cross-cultural perspective: the example of moral outrage and health-and non-health-based philanthropy across seven countries","volume":"13","author":"Ferguson","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISBT Sci Ser."},{"key":"2021122116293338400_CIT0053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.15085","article-title":"Blood donors and their changing engagement in other prosocial behaviors","volume":"59","author":"Studte","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transfusion."}],"container-title":["Annals of Behavioral Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/abm\/article-pdf\/56\/1\/89\/41840699\/kaab026.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/abm\/article-pdf\/56\/1\/89\/41840699\/kaab026.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,4]],"date-time":"2023-11-04T08:57:16Z","timestamp":1699088236000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/abm\/article\/56\/1\/89\/6288217"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,29]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,29]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/abm\/kaab026","relation":{},"ISSN":["0883-6612","1532-4796"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0883-6612","type":"print"},{"value":"1532-4796","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,29]]}}}