{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T05:07:44Z","timestamp":1778130464216,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2002,6,1]],"date-time":"2002-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1022889600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,25]],"date-time":"2023-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677283200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":7574,"URL":"http:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/open-access\/userlicense\/1.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2002,6]]},"DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,25]],"date-time":"2018-01-25T00:55:28Z","timestamp":1516841728000},"page":"959-970","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Micronutrients and vertical transmission of HIV-1"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"75","author":[{"given":"Michele L","family":"Dreyfuss","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wafaie W","family":"Fawzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib1","series-title":"AIDS epidemic update: December 2000.","year":"2000"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib2","series-title":"Mother-to-child transmission of HIV: UNAIDS technical update.","year":"1998"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib3","series-title":"AIDS epidemic update: December 1999.","year":"1999"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(94)93056-2","article-title":"Maternal vitamin A deficiency and mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1","volume":"343","author":"Semba","year":"1994","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib5","series-title":"National Conference on Human Retroviruses and Related Infection.","article-title":"Effect of maternal vitamin A deficiency on infant mortality and perinatal HIV transmission","author":"Graham","year":"1993"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1086\/520210","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency and other nutritional indices during pregnancy in human immunodeficiency virus infection: prevalence, clinical correlates, and outcome. Women and Infants Transmission Study Group","volume":"29","author":"Burns","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199703110-00010","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency and maternal-infant transmission of HIV in two metropolitan areas in the United States","volume":"11","author":"Greenberg","year":"1997","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199704010-00003","article-title":"Maternal serum vitamin A levels are not associated with mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in the United States","volume":"14","author":"Burger","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/21.4.966","article-title":"Infant mortality and maternal vitamin A deficiency during human immunodeficiency virus infection","volume":"21","author":"Semba","year":"1995","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-200104010-00012","article-title":"Low carotenoid concentration and the risk of HIV seroconversion in Pune, India","volume":"26","author":"Mehendale","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200103300-00014","article-title":"Vitamin A and risk of HIV-1 seroconversion among Kenyan men with genital ulcers","volume":"15","author":"MacDonald","year":"2001","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/58.2.192","article-title":"Influence of morbidity on serum retinol of children in a community-based study in northern Ghana","volume":"58","author":"Filteau","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a114646","article-title":"The prevalent cohort study and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome","volume":"126","author":"Brookmeyer","year":"1987","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1086\/342297","article-title":"Antenatal vitamin A supplementation increases birthweight and decreases anemia, but does not prevent HIV transmission or decrease mortality in infants born to HIV-infected women in Malawi","author":"Kumwenda","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199908200-00012","article-title":"Randomized trial testing the effect of vitamin A supplementation on pregnancy outcomes and early mother-to-child HIV-1 transmission in Durban, South Africa. South African Vitamin A Study Group","volume":"13","author":"Coutsoudis","year":"1999","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-200003010-00006","article-title":"Randomized trial of vitamin supplements in relation to vertical transmission of HIV-1 in Tanzania","volume":"23","author":"Fawzi","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)04197-X","article-title":"Randomised trial of effects of vitamin supplements on pregnancy outcomes and T cell counts in HIV-1-infected women in Tanzania","volume":"351","author":"Fawzi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05478.x","article-title":"Nutritional factors and vertical transmission of HIV-1: epidemiology and potential mechanisms","volume":"918","author":"Fawzi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1096\/fasebj.10.9.8801180","article-title":"Vitamin A and retinoids in antiviral responses","volume":"10","author":"Ross","year":"1996","journal-title":"FASEB J"},{"issue":"suppl","key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib20","first-page":"S38","article-title":"The role of vitamin A and related retinoids in immune function","volume":"56","author":"Semba","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nutr Rev"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-2427(90)90067-3","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency impairs cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity in Newcastle disease virus-infected chickens","volume":"26","author":"Sijtsma","year":"1990","journal-title":"Vet Immunol Immunopathol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/127.4.558","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency alters rat neutrophil function","volume":"127","author":"Twining","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/125.8.2064","article-title":"Retinoic acid repletion restores the number of leukocytes and their subsets and stimulates natural cytotoxicity in vitamin A-deficient rats","volume":"125","author":"Zhao","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib24","series-title":"XVII International Vitamin A Consultative Group Meeting.","first-page":"81","article-title":"Vitamin A status and supplementation and its effects on immunity in children with AIDS","author":"Hussey","year":"1996"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/122.1.101","article-title":"Depressed immune response to tetanus in children with vitamin A deficiency","volume":"122","author":"Semba","year":"1992","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199203000-00006","article-title":"Vitamin A supplementation enhances specific IgG antibody levels and total lymphocyte numbers while improving morbidity in measles","volume":"11","author":"Coutsoudis","year":"1992","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199007193230304","article-title":"A randomized, controlled trial of vitamin A in children with severe measles","volume":"323","author":"Hussey","year":"1990","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)08293-2","article-title":"Effect of vitamin A supplementation on morbidity due to Plasmodium falciparum in young children in Papua New Guinea: a randomised trial","volume":"354","author":"Shankar","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1993.03500070078033","article-title":"Vitamin A supplementation and child mortality. A meta-analysis","volume":"269","author":"Fawzi","year":"1993","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/53.5.1275","article-title":"Vitamin B-6 deficiency impairs interleukin 2 production and lymphocyte proliferation in elderly adults","volume":"53","author":"Meydani","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib31","first-page":"1122","article-title":"Association of vitamin B-6 status with parameters of immune function in early HIV-1 infection","volume":"4","author":"Baum","year":"1991","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib32","series-title":"Nutrition and immunology.","first-page":"101","article-title":"B vitamins: effects on specific and nonspecific immune responses","author":"Bendich","year":"1988"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib33","series-title":"Nutrition and immunology.","first-page":"125","article-title":"Antioxidant vitamins and immune responses","author":"Bendich","year":"1988"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2024","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/124.10.2024","article-title":"Nutritional status and immune responses in mice with murine AIDS are normalized by vitamin E supplementation","volume":"124","author":"Wang","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/0162-3109(95)00061-W","article-title":"Modulation of immune function and cytokine production by various levels of vitamin E supplementation during murine AIDS","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"1995","journal-title":"Immunopharmacology"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/52.3.557","article-title":"Vitamin E supplementation enhances cell-mediated immunity in healthy elderly subjects","volume":"52","author":"Meydani","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1997.03540410058031","article-title":"Vitamin E supplementation and in vivo immune response in healthy elderly subjects. A randomized controlled trial","volume":"277","author":"Meydani","year":"1997","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib38","series-title":"Vitamin C in health and disease.","article-title":"Vitamin C and infectious diseases","author":"Hemila","year":"1997"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1858","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/65.6.1858","article-title":"Plasma vitamin C concentrations in patients with cystic fibrosis: evidence of associations with lung inflammation","volume":"65","author":"Winklhofer-Roob","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"issue":"suppl","key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/68.2.447S","article-title":"Zinc and immune function: the biological basis of altered resistance to infection","volume":"68","author":"Shankar","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"issue":"suppl","key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/68.2.476S","article-title":"Therapeutic and preventive effects of zinc on serious childhood infectious diseases in developing countries","volume":"68","author":"Black","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-9351(87)80194-9","article-title":"Selenium and immune responses","volume":"42","author":"Kiremidjian-Schumacher","year":"1987","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib43","first-page":"215","article-title":"Effects of selenium supplementation on immune parameters in gut failure patients on home parenteral nutrition","volume":"7","author":"Peretz","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/20.3.169","article-title":"The effect of dietary supplementation with vitamins A, C and E on cell-mediated immune function in elderly long-stay patients: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"20","author":"Penn","year":"1991","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(92)93151-C","article-title":"Effect of vitamin and trace-element supplementation on immune responses and infection in elderly subjects","volume":"340","author":"Chandra","year":"1992","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/126.2.310","article-title":"The Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study: rationale, organization, and selected characteristics of the participants","volume":"126","author":"Kaslow","year":"1987","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1987.03390030051019","article-title":"Sexual practices and risk of infection by the human immunodeficiency virus. The San Francisco Men\u2019s Health Study","volume":"257","author":"Winkelstein","year":"1987","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib48","first-page":"949","article-title":"A prospective study of dietary intake and acquired immune deficiency syndrome in HIV-seropositive homosexual men","volume":"6","author":"Abrams","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a116814","article-title":"Dietary micronutrient intake and risk of progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected homosexual men","volume":"138","author":"Tang","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199705000-00009","article-title":"Association between serum vitamin A and E levels and HIV-1 disease progression","volume":"11","author":"Tang","year":"1997","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199509000-00010","article-title":"Micronutrients and HIV-1 disease progression","volume":"9","author":"Baum","year":"1995","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1086\/514235","article-title":"Vitamin A supplementation and human immunodeficiency virus load in injection drug users","volume":"177","author":"Semba","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199901010-00007","article-title":"Short-term effects of large-dose vitamin A supplementation on viral load and immune response in HIV-infected women","volume":"20","author":"Humphrey","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199705010-00015","article-title":"Effects of vitamin A supplementation on viral load in HIV-1-infected pregnant women","volume":"15","author":"Coutsoudis","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1244","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a008712","article-title":"Effects of micronutrient intake on survival in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection","volume":"143","author":"Tang","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2149","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.1993.00410180103012","article-title":"Increased mortality associated with vitamin A deficiency during human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection","volume":"153","author":"Semba","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/171.5.1196","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency and wasting as predictors of mortality in human immunodeficiency virus-infected injection drug users","volume":"171","author":"Semba","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199708150-00007","article-title":"High risk of HIV-related mortality is associated with selenium deficiency","volume":"15","author":"Baum","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib59","first-page":"272","article-title":"Beta-carotene in HIV infection","volume":"6","author":"Coodley","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199610090-00006","article-title":"Beta-carotene in HIV infection: an extended evaluation","volume":"10","author":"Coodley","year":"1996","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/23.3.654","article-title":"One-year antioxidant supplementation with beta-carotene or selenium for patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: a pilot study","volume":"23","author":"Constans","year":"1996","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/127.2.345","article-title":"Low serum vitamin B-12 concentrations are associated with faster human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) disease progression","volume":"127","author":"Tang","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199813000-00013","article-title":"Effects of vitamin E and C supplementation on oxidative stress and viral load in HIV-infected subjects","volume":"12","author":"Allard","year":"1998","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib64","first-page":"976","article-title":"Relationship of serum copper and zinc levels to HIV-1 seropositivity and progression to AIDS","volume":"4","author":"Graham","year":"1991","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-199907010-00011","article-title":"Supplemental vitamin B and progression to AIDS and death in black South African patients infected with HIV","volume":"21","author":"Kanter","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1159\/000145637","article-title":"Micromorphology of the placenta of rats reared on marginal vitamin-A-deficient diet","volume":"102","author":"Noback","year":"1978","journal-title":"Acta Anat (Basel)"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2853","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1993.03500220039023","article-title":"Risk for perinatal HIV-1 transmission according to maternal immunologic, virologic, and placental factors","volume":"269","author":"St Louis","year":"1993","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(95)90597-9","article-title":"Risk factors for mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection","volume":"172","author":"Temmerman","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-199912010-00009","article-title":"Placental membrane inflammation and risks of maternal-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Uganda","volume":"22","author":"Wabwire-Mangen","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1927","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)04453-5","article-title":"Choriodecidual inflammation: a potentially preventable cause of perinatal HIV-1 transmission?","volume":"352","author":"Goldenberg","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1002\/aja.1000950207","article-title":"Effect of locally applied vitamin A and estrogen on the rat vagina","volume":"95","author":"Kahn","year":"1954","journal-title":"Am J Anat"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.42.6.753","article-title":"Tissue changes following deprivation of fat-soluble A vitamin","volume":"42","author":"Wollbach","year":"1925","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"issue":"suppl","key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib73","first-page":"S43","article-title":"Quantitation of mediators of inflammation and immunity in genital tract secretions and their relevance to HIV type 1 transmission","volume":"14","author":"Anderson","year":"1998","journal-title":"AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/175.1.57","article-title":"Genital shedding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 DNA during pregnancy: association with immunosuppression, abnormal cervical or vaginal discharge, and severe vitamin A deficiency","volume":"175","author":"John","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(97)04240-2","article-title":"Hormonal contraception, vitamin A deficiency, and other risk factors for shedding of HIV-1 infected cells from the cervix and vagina","volume":"350","author":"Mostad","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-200104010-00013","article-title":"Selenium deficiency is associated with shedding of HIV-1-infected cells in the female genital tract","volume":"26","author":"Baeten","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(85)90156-4","article-title":"Isolation of AIDS virus from cell-free breast milk of three healthy virus carriers","volume":"2","author":"Thiry","year":"1985","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib78","first-page":"68","article-title":"Prevalence of HIV-1 DNA and p24 antigen in breast milk and correlation with maternal factors","volume":"7","author":"Ruff","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(92)92115-V","article-title":"Risk of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transmission through breastfeeding","volume":"340","author":"Dunn","year":"1992","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)01419-6","article-title":"International multicentre pooled analysis of late postnatal mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 infection. Ghent International Working Group on Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV","volume":"352","author":"Leroy","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1086\/513816","article-title":"Cell-free human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in breast milk","volume":"177","author":"Lewis","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(93)91210-D","article-title":"Infective and anti-infective properties of breastmilk from HIV-1-infected women","volume":"341","author":"Van de Perre","year":"1993","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-9068-9_24","article-title":"Lactoferrin. Antiviral activity of lactoferrin","volume":"443","author":"Swart","year":"1998","journal-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/125.3.419","article-title":"Human milk glycosaminoglycans inhibit HIV glycoprotein gp120 binding to its host cell CD4 receptor","volume":"125","author":"Newburg","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V90.3.1141","article-title":"Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infectivity by secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor occurs prior to viral reverse transcription","volume":"90","author":"McNeely","year":"1997","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1038\/381667a0","article-title":"HIV-1 entry into CD4+ cells is mediated by the chemokine receptor CC-CKR-5","volume":"381","author":"Dragic","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"suppl","key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S7","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3782(97)00051-0","article-title":"Properties of human milk and their relationship with maternal nutrition","volume":"49","author":"Emmett","year":"1997","journal-title":"Early Hum Dev"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/54.1.81","article-title":"Studies in human lactation: milk volume and nutrient composition during weaning and lactogenesis","volume":"54","author":"Neville","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1086\/314854","article-title":"Human immunodeficiency virus load in breast milk, mastitis, and mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1","volume":"180","author":"Semba","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1128\/CDLI.6.5.671-674.1999","article-title":"Mastitis and immunological factors in breast milk of lactating women in Malawi","volume":"6","author":"Semba","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin Diagn Lab Immunol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.1999.tb01795.x","article-title":"Breast-feeding, mastitis, and HIV transmission: nutritional implications","volume":"57","author":"Semba","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nutr Rev"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/69.5.953","article-title":"Breast milk immune factors in Bangladeshi women supplemented postpartum with retinol or beta-carotene","volume":"69","author":"Filteau","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2567.1999.00834.x","article-title":"Milk cytokines and subclinical breast inflammation in Tanzanian women: effects of dietary red palm oil or sunflower oil supplementation","volume":"97","author":"Filteau","year":"1999","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/172.6.1461","article-title":"Human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected cells in breast milk: association with immunosuppression and vitamin A deficiency","volume":"172","author":"Nduati","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a009244","article-title":"Use of multivitamin\/mineral prenatal supplements: influence on the outcome of pregnancy","volume":"146","author":"Scholl","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.318.7183.570","article-title":"Double blind, cluster randomised trial of low dose supplementation with vitamin A or beta carotene on mortality related to pregnancy in Nepal. The NNIPS-2 Study Group","volume":"318","author":"West","year":"1999","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib97","series-title":"XVIII International Vitamin A Consultative Group Meeting.","first-page":"104","article-title":"Effect of maternal vitamin A or \u03b2-carotene supplementation on intrauterine\/early infant growth in Nepal","author":"Dreyfuss","year":"1997"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1995.03530060037030","article-title":"The effect of zinc supplementation on pregnancy outcome","volume":"274","author":"Goldenberg","year":"1995","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/129.8.1563","article-title":"Maternal zinc supplementation does not affect size at birth or pregnancy duration in Peru","volume":"129","author":"Caulfield","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN19900122","article-title":"The interaction of vitamin A deficiency and rotavirus in the mouse","volume":"63","author":"Ahmed","year":"1990","journal-title":"Br J Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib101","first-page":"30","article-title":"Potential difference and mucus content in the stomach of vitamin A deficient rats","volume":"415","author":"Meneghetti","year":"1989","journal-title":"Eur J Physiol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/111.5.777","article-title":"DNA labelling of rat epithelial tissues in vitamin A deficiency","volume":"111","author":"Zile","year":"1981","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1097\/00005176-199210000-00010","article-title":"Impact of zinc supplementation on intestinal permeability in Bangladeshi children with acute diarrhoea and persistent diarrhoea syndrome","volume":"15","author":"Roy","year":"1992","journal-title":"J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665199000403","article-title":"The effect of vitamin A on epithelial integrity","volume":"58","author":"McCullough","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc Nutr Soc"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib105","first-page":"100","article-title":"Intestinal mucosal immune defense mechanisms","volume":"12","author":"Keren","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am J Surg Pathol"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib106","first-page":"699","article-title":"Effect of human immunodeficiency virus on local immunity in children with diarrhoea","volume":"72","author":"Kakai","year":"1995","journal-title":"East Afr Med J"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.3109\/08820138909112232","article-title":"Nutritional modulation of intestinal mucosal immunity","volume":"18","author":"Chandra","year":"1989","journal-title":"Immunol Invest"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7123244","article-title":"Gestational zinc deprivation in mice: persistence of immunodeficiency for three generations","volume":"218","author":"Beach","year":"1982","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(99)80008-7","article-title":"Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 randomised trial","volume":"354","author":"Guay","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)10412-9","article-title":"Short-course oral zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Abijan, Cote d\u2019Ivoire: a randomised trial","volume":"353","author":"Wiktor","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)10411-7","article-title":"Short-course zidovudine for perinatal HIV-1 transmission in Bangkok, Thailand: a randomised controlled trial","volume":"353","author":"Shaffer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(99)90028-4","article-title":"Short-course zidovudine for prevention of perinatal infection","volume":"353","author":"Mofenson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.85.8_Pt_1.1076","article-title":"The effects of vitamin A supplementation on the morbidity of children born to HIV-infected women","volume":"85","author":"Coutsoudis","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959_bib114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199902000-00009","article-title":"A randomized trial of vitamin A supplements in relation to mortality among human immunodeficiency virus-infected and uninfected children in Tanzania","volume":"18","author":"Fawzi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"}],"container-title":["The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0002916523062299?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S0002916523062299?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ajcn\/article-pdf\/75\/6\/959\/23657874\/959.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,30]],"date-time":"2025-06-30T00:27:44Z","timestamp":1751243264000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S0002916523062299"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2002,6]]},"references-count":114,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2002,6]]}},"alternative-id":["S0002916523062299"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959","relation":{},"ISSN":["0002-9165"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0002-9165","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2002,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Micronutrients and vertical transmission of HIV-1","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ajcn\/75.6.959","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"Copyright \u00a9 2002 American Society for Nutrition. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}