{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T23:56:07Z","timestamp":1763682967704,"version":"3.45.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":2,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Duke Population Research Institute"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009633","name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01HD103736"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HD103736"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009633","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Although the public health field has increasingly studied the collateral consequences of incarceration, we know little about the health consequences of other forms of criminal legal contact, including probation and parole. Understanding spatial and racial-ethnic variation in probation\/parole across US states provides new insights into how community supervision impacts population health disparities. However, state-level probation\/parole prevalence has not been adequately described. Using data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the Census for the years 2001 to 2018, we provide the first state-level estimates of probation and parole populations by race over time in the United States. We find large variation in disparities across states and time that is masked by national-level estimates. The US probation population decreased, and its racial composition remained steady between 2001 and 2018. However, in all but 5 states, the Black-White gap in probation rates declined. The Black-White gap in parole rates declined in all but 7 states. The extent to which these race-specific changes in probation or parole over time reflect adjudication processes favoring White people, and\/or affect population health, warrant further investigation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of a Special Collection on Methods in Social Epidemiology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwae460","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,16]],"date-time":"2024-12-16T15:27:26Z","timestamp":1734362846000},"page":"3091-3098","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["State-level changes in racial disparities in probation and parole rates in the United States, 2001-2018"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"194","author":[{"given":"David","family":"Rigby","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI 48104,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daichi","family":"Hibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis, MO 63108,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ruth","family":"Wygle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, Duke University , Durham, NC 27710,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hedwig","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, Duke University , Durham, NC 27710,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joan","family":"Casey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington , Seattle, WA 98195,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5879-9730","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alison","family":"Gemmill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health , Baltimore, MD 21205,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tim","family":"Bruckner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Society and Behavior, UCI Public Health, University of California , Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,16]]},"reference":[{"volume-title":"The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences","year":"2014","author":"National Research Council (NRC)","key":"2025112018525700100_ref1"},{"volume-title":"The New Jim Crow: Mass Imprisonment in the Age of Colorblindness","year":"2010","author":"Alexander","key":"2025112018525700100_ref2"},{"issue":"2","key":"2025112018525700100_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1177\/000312240406900201","article-title":"Mass imprisonment and the life course: race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration","volume":"69","author":"Pettit","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am Sociol Rev."},{"volume-title":"Punishment and Inequality in America","year":"2006","author":"Western","key":"2025112018525700100_ref4"},{"issue":"2","key":"2025112018525700100_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsa064115","article-title":"Release from prison\u2014a high risk of death for former inmates","volume":"356","author":"Binswanger","year":"2007","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025112018525700100_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-073014-112326","article-title":"Incarceration and health","volume":"41","author":"Massoglia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025112018525700100_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-lawsocsci-102510-105459","article-title":"Mass imprisonment and inequality in health and family life","volume":"8","author":"Wildeman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann Rev Law Soc Sci."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025112018525700100_ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1177\/1462474516649174","article-title":"Mass probation: toward a more robust theory of state variation in punishment","volume":"19","author":"Phelps","year":"2017","journal-title":"Punishment Soc."},{"issue":"1","key":"2025112018525700100_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.7758\/rsf.2019.5.1.01","article-title":"Criminal justice contact and inequality. 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