{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T22:04:43Z","timestamp":1775081083334,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772841600000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"funder":[{"name":"Core Research","award":["EMR\/2017\/002769"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EMR\/2017\/002769"]}]},{"name":"Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background and Aims<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Grasslands in the Terai\u2013Duar Savanna and Grasslands ecoregion, located at the base of the Himalayas, are disturbance-dependent ecosystems where grassland loss attributable to woody encroachment has been reported in recent decades. Although some of this loss is offset by grassland emergence, the extent and drivers of grassland expansion remain poorly understood. Here, we aim to study the relationship between grassland emergence, ecosystem characteristics and disturbance factors.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We analysed satellite-based land-cover classifications (Landsat TM\/OLI) from 1988 to 2019 across eight protected areas (four in each of India and Nepal) to quantify grassland emergence starting from non-grassland land cover. We applied a two-tiered Bayesian modelling framework: (1) a landscape-scale mixed-effects binomial model (with protected area as a random effect) to identify environmental drivers; and (2) site-specific spatial regression models with conditional autoregressive priors to capture local patterns while accounting for spatial autocorrelation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Key Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Over the last three decades, grassland emergence was observed in 9.5 % of the non-grassland area, which accounts for \u223c37 % of the current grassland extent. Grassland emergence was favoured in sites with steep slopes, high soil moisture content (as indicated by the topographic wetness index) and frequent fire, but inhibited at higher elevations and greater distances from human settlements or water bodies. The importance of environmental drivers varied by site, and the effects of fire were strongest in high-rainfall sites, whereas topographic and hydrological factors dominated in the drier sites. Greater grassland formation near human settlements suggests that anthropogenic disturbance (mainly livestock grazing and fires) can mimic natural processes in creating open habitats.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings underscore the ecological significance of disturbance regimes (flood, human influence and fire) in maintaining grasslands and habitat management for conservation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/aob\/mcag051","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T12:39:21Z","timestamp":1772800761000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Three decades of grassland emergence in the Terai\u2013Duar Savanna and Grasslands ecoregion: patterns and drivers"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2707-5147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Swapnil","family":"Bhowal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata , Mohanpur, West Bengal 741246 ,","place":["India"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Subham","family":"Banerjee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest and Rangeland Stewardship, Warner College of Natural Resources, Colorado State University , 1001 Amy Van Dyken Way, Fort Collins, CO 80523 ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2848-9413","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"John","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata , Mohanpur, West Bengal 741246 ,","place":["India"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.02.037","article-title":"Drivers of fire occurrence in a mountainous Brazilian cerrado savanna: tracking long-term fire regimes using remote sensing","volume":"78","author":"Alvarado","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e8801","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.8801","article-title":"Barriers and bridges for sustaining functional habitat networks: a macroecological system analysis of wet grassland landscapes","volume":"12","author":"Angelstam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-46709-2_2","volume-title":"Rangeland systems: processes, management and challenges","author":"Archer","year":"2017"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abo2380","article-title":"Grassland soil carbon sequestration: current understanding, challenges, and solutions","volume":"377","author":"Bai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2021.108411","article-title":"Grassland vegetation and roads have dominant influence on decadal-scale spatial-temporal patterns of fires in a species-rich protected Terai habitat in northeastern India","volume":"304\u2013305","author":"Banerjee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agricultural and Forest Meteorology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1017\/S0376892923000024","article-title":"Grass fires and road structure influence plant invasions in a critical wildlife habitat in north-eastern India","volume":"50","author":"Banerjee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environmental Conservation"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2022.120764","article-title":"Grassland-woodland transitions over decadal timescales in the terai-Duar savanna and grasslands of the Indian subcontinent","volume":"530","author":"Banerjee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Forest Ecology and Management"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-021-00207-2","article-title":"Combatting global grassland degradation","volume":"2","author":"Bardgett","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature Reviews: Earth & Environment"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e02582","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.2582","article-title":"Grasslands\u2014more important for ecosystem services than you might think","volume":"10","author":"Bengtsson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00116466","article-title":"Bayesian image restoration, with two applications in spatial statistics","volume":"43","author":"Besag","year":"1991","journal-title":"Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-025-14425-4","article-title":"Fire, anthropogenic influence, and habitat factors affect grassland persistence in the face of woody encroachment in a Terai-Duars savanna and grasslands habitat","volume":"197","author":"Bhowal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environmental Monitoring and Assessment"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-20-1113-2023","article-title":"Environmental drivers of spatio-temporal dynamics in floodplain vegetation: grasslands as habitat for megafauna in Bardia National Park (Nepal)","volume":"20","author":"Bijlmakers","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1007\/s11749-018-0599-x","article-title":"Comparing implementations of global and local indicators of spatial association","volume":"27","author":"Bivand","year":"2018","journal-title":"Test"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-7501-9_14","volume-title":"Ecology and the environment","author":"Blair","year":"2014"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2008.10.008","article-title":"Generalized linear mixed models: a practical guide for ecology and evolution","volume":"24","author":"Bolker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology & Evolution"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2009.12.012","article-title":"Beyond the forest edge: ecology, diversity and conservation of the grassy biomes","volume":"143","author":"Bond","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biological Conservation"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Machine Learning"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2111\/1551-5028(2005)58&lt;1:SMTARH&gt;2.0.CO;2","article-title":"State-and-transition models, thresholds, and rangeland health: a synthesis of ecological concepts and perspectives","volume":"58","author":"Briske","year":"2005","journal-title":"Rangeland Ecology & Management"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2745.12969","article-title":"The environmental triangle of the Cerrado Domain: ecological factors driving shifts in tree species composition between forests and savannas","volume":"106","author":"Bueno","year":"2018","journal-title":"The Journal of Ecology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12470","article-title":"Resilience and restoration of tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and grassy woodlands","volume":"94","author":"Buisson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1162\/thld_a_00759","article-title":"A landscape that has never existed: temporalities of control and disaster-making in the Terai","volume":"50","author":"Carlson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Thresholds"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.13140\/2.1.2737.2808","volume-title":"Tigers of the Transboundary Terai Arc Landscape: Status, distributionand movement in the Terai of India and Nepal","author":"Chanchani","year":"2014"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.14716","article-title":"Grassland woody plant management rapidly changes woody vegetation persistence and abiotic habitat conditions but not herbaceous community composition","volume":"61","author":"Charton","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Ecology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3981111","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/3981111","article-title":"Impacts of livestock grazing on wild ungulate habitat in the Khata Corridor, Bardiya, Nepal","volume":"2023","author":"Dahal","year":"2023","journal-title":"International Journal of Forestry Research"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.12537","article-title":"Disturbance maintains alternative biome states","volume":"19","author":"Dantas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1007\/s11258-019-00964-7","article-title":"Predicting the distribution and abundance of invasive plant species in a sub-tropical woodland-grassland ecosystem in northeastern India","volume":"220","author":"Das","year":"2019","journal-title":"Plant Ecology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20191755","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2019.1755","article-title":"Determinants of tree cover in tropical floodplains","volume":"286","author":"Daskin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society of London: Series B, Biological Sciences"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2002076","article-title":"Fire information for resource management system: archiving and distributing MODIS active fire data","volume":"47","author":"Davies","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2010.02.010","article-title":"Interactions between protected areas and their surroundings in human-dominated tropical landscapes","volume":"143","author":"DeFries","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biological Conservation"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-019-04423-y","article-title":"Differential effects of soil waterlogging on herbaceous and woody plant communities in a Neotropical savanna","volume":"190","author":"de Oliveira Xavier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2617","DOI":"10.1007\/s10530-012-0257-2","article-title":"Do priority effects benefit invasive plants more than native plants? An experiment with six grassland species","volume":"14","author":"Dickson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biological Invasions"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1002\/ird.1791","article-title":"Identifying the potential causes of waterlogging in irrigated agriculture: the case of the Wonji-Shoa sugar cane plantation (Ethiopia)","volume":"63","author":"Dinka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Irrigation and Drainage"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e01794","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.1794","article-title":"Factors influencing fire severity under moderate burning conditions in the Klamath Mountains, northern California, USA","volume":"8","author":"Estes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02857920","article-title":"Forest damage and recovery from catastrophic wind","volume":"62","author":"Everham","year":"1996","journal-title":"The Botanical Review"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4302","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.5086","article-title":"WorldClim 2: new 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas","volume":"37","author":"Fick","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Journal of Climatology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2008.01139.x","article-title":"Pyric herbivory: rewilding landscapes through the recoupling of fire and grazing","volume":"23","author":"Fuhlendorf","year":"2009","journal-title":"Conservation Biology: The Journal of the Society for Conservation Biology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4273","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-014-3322-6","article-title":"Quantitative assessment of the contributions of climate change and human activities on global grassland degradation","volume":"72","author":"Gang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environmental Earth Sciences"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(96)00067-3","article-title":"NDWI\u2014a normalized difference water index for remote sensing of vegetation liquid water from space","volume":"58","author":"Gao","year":"1996","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2020.107072","article-title":"A global meta-analysis of grazing effects on plant richness","volume":"302","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2699.2005.01448.x","article-title":"Productivity and carbon fluxes of tropical savannas","volume":"33","author":"Grace","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Biogeography"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1210657","article-title":"Global resilience of tropical forest and savanna to critical transitions","volume":"334","author":"Hirota","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7429.2000.tb00448.x","article-title":"Post-establishment seedling success in the Brazilian cerrado: a comparison of savanna and forest species","volume":"32","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biotropica"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2312279120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2312279120","article-title":"Seasonal flooding shapes forest\u2013savanna transitions","volume":"120","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2012.01789.x","article-title":"Ecological thresholds at the savanna-forest boundary: how plant traits, resources and fire govern the distribution of tropical biomes","volume":"15","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B45","author":"IUCN","year":"2025"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e01240","DOI":"10.1002\/ehs2.1240","article-title":"Future wet grasslands: ecological implications of climate change","volume":"2","author":"Joyce","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecosystem Health and Sustainability"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-44129-6","volume-title":"Statistical analysis of Network Data with R","author":"Kolaczyk","year":"2014"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.143785","article-title":"Topographic wetness index calculation guidelines based on measured soil moisture and plant species composition","volume":"757","author":"Kopeck\u00fd","year":"2021","journal-title":"The Science of the Total Environment"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-0031-8","volume-title":"The vegetation and physiography of sumatra: maps","author":"Laumonier","year":"1997"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v055.i13","article-title":"CARBayes: an R package for Bayesian spatial modeling with conditional autoregressive priors","volume":"55","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1247355","article-title":"Savanna vegetation-fire-climate relationships differ among continents","volume":"343","author":"Lehmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.2989\/20702620.2018.1520026","article-title":"Use of Landsat multi-temporal imagery to assess secondary growth Miombo woodlands in Luanshya, Zambia","volume":"81","author":"Lembani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Southern Forests: a Journal of Forest Science"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.2307\/1312557","article-title":"Downstream ecological effects of dams","volume":"45","author":"Ligon","year":"1995","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v063.i19","article-title":"Bayesian spatial modelling with R-INLA","volume":"63","author":"Lindgren","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2005.03.026","article-title":"Riparian plant species richness along lateral and longitudinal gradients of water stress and flood disturbance, San Pedro River, Arizona, USA","volume":"63","author":"Lite","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Arid Environments"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.5194\/esd-8-565-2017","article-title":"River logjams cause frequent large-scale forest die-off events in southwestern Amazonia","volume":"8","author":"Lombardo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth System Dynamics: ESD"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.3390\/land13060878","article-title":"Prioritization of ecological conservation and restoration areas through ecological networks: a case study of Nanchang city, China","volume":"13","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Land"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20190104","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2019.0104","article-title":"Climate change and ecosystems: threats, opportunities and solutions","volume":"375","author":"Malhi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B59","first-page":"16","volume-title":"Grassland ecology and management in protected areas of Nepal: technical and status papers on grasslands of terai protected areas","author":"Mathur","year":"2000"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40965-019-0066-y","article-title":"TWI computation: a comparison of different open source GISs","volume":"4","author":"Mattivi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Open Geospatial Data, Software and Standards"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2301255120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2301255120","article-title":"Double stress of waterlogging and drought drives forest\u2013savanna coexistence","volume":"120","author":"Mattos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.3360090104","article-title":"Mapping waterlogging of soils using digital terrain models","volume":"9","author":"Merot","year":"1995","journal-title":"Hydrological Processes"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0021-8901.2004.00885.x","article-title":"Competition between domestic livestock and wild bharal Pseudois nayaur in the Indian Trans-Himalaya","volume":"41","author":"Mishra","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Ecology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20150174","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0174","article-title":"Community owned solutions for fire management in tropical ecosystems: case studies from Indigenous communities of South America","volume":"371","author":"Mistry","year":"2016","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1080\/17550874.2025.2537152","article-title":"Fire and herbivory control shrub encroachment and restore herbaceous vegetation in mesic grasslands of South Africa","volume":"18","author":"Mndela","year":"2025","journal-title":"Plant Ecology & Diversity"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2018.11.057","article-title":"The legacy of colonial fire management policies on traditional livelihoods and ecological sustainability in savannas: impacts, consequences, new directions","volume":"232","author":"Moura","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Environmental Management"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20150319","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0319","article-title":"The underestimated biodiversity of tropical grassy biomes","volume":"371","author":"Murphy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20150308","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0308","article-title":"Many shades of green: the dynamic tropical forest\u2013savannah transition zones","volume":"371","author":"Oliveras","year":"2016","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.2307\/3298564","article-title":"The Global 200: priority ecoregions for global conservation","volume":"89","author":"Olson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:TEOTWA]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on earth: a new global map of terrestrial ecoregions provides an innovative tool for conserving biodiversity","volume":"51","author":"Olson","year":"2001","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70084","DOI":"10.1111\/aec.70084","article-title":"Landscape and the occupancy of pampean grassland birds: modelling site occupancy through acoustic detection","volume":"50","author":"Paludo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Austral Ecology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"plq003","DOI":"10.1093\/aobpla\/plq003","article-title":"Struggle in the flood: tree responses to flooding stress in four tropical floodplain systems","volume":"2010","author":"Parolin","year":"2010","journal-title":"AoB PLANTS"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2014.02.004","article-title":"Tropical grassy biomes: misunderstood, neglected, and under threat","volume":"29","author":"Parr","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology & Evolution"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.32614\/RJ-2018-009","article-title":"Simple features for R: standardized support for spatial vector data","volume":"10\/1","author":"Pebesma","year":"2018","journal-title":"The R Journal"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3207(98)00104-9","article-title":"Plant diversity in the threatened sub-tropical grasslands of Nepal","volume":"88","author":"Peet","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biological Conservation"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2102","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2013.2271445","article-title":"A global human settlement layer from optical HR\/VHR RS data: concept and first results","volume":"6","author":"Pesaresi","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eadu7471","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adu7471","article-title":"Grazing can reduce wildfire risk amid climate change","volume":"387","author":"Pillar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1466-8238.2010.00634.x","article-title":"When is a \u2018forest\u2019 a savanna, and why does it matter?","volume":"20","author":"Ratnam","year":"2011","journal-title":"Global Ecology and Biogeography"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B79","volume-title":"Ecology and management of grassland habitats in India. ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife & Protected Areas","author":"Rawat","year":"2015"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810601169899","article-title":"An evaluation of void-filling interpolation methods for SRTM data","volume":"21","author":"Reuter","year":"2007","journal-title":"International journal of Geographical Information Science"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1071\/BT20173","article-title":"Waterlogging as an environmental filter to tree recruitment in tropical wet grasslands","volume":"69","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Australian Journal of Botany"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2690","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.13972","article-title":"Effects of large herbivores on fire regimes and wildfire mitigation","volume":"58","author":"Rouet-Leduc","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Ecology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2018.04.008","article-title":"Misclassification error in satellite imagery data: implications for empirical land-use models","volume":"75","author":"Sandler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04070","article-title":"Determinants of woody cover in African savannas","volume":"438","author":"Sankaran","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4367","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-31253-z","article-title":"A smart and flexible approach for aggregation of adjacent polygons to meet a minimum target area or attribute value","volume":"13","author":"Schiavina","year":"2023","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-9993.2012.02379.x","article-title":"Does long-term fire exclusion in an Australian tropical savanna result in a biome shift? A test using the reintroduction of fire","volume":"37","author":"Scott","year":"2012","journal-title":"Austral Ecology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.4996\/fireecology.0602043","article-title":"Indigenous fire use to manage savanna landscapes in southern Mozambique","volume":"6","author":"Shaffer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fire Ecology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1071\/WF19193","article-title":"Soil moisture as an indicator of growing-season herbaceous fuel moisture and curing rate in grasslands","volume":"30","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"International Journal of Wildland Fire"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-013-1822-x","article-title":"Can savannas become forests? A coupled analysis of nutrient stocks and fire thresholds in central Brazil","volume":"373","author":"Silva","year":"2013","journal-title":"Plant and Soil"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1210465","article-title":"The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states","volume":"334","author":"Staver","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.2307\/634607","article-title":"The forest as Phoenix: towards a biogeography of fire in mainland South East Asia","volume":"154","author":"Stott","year":"1988","journal-title":"The Geographical Journal"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-009-9411-8","article-title":"Remotely-sensed active fire data for protected area management: eight-year patterns in the Manas National Park, India","volume":"45","author":"Takahata","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environmental Management"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2016.10.007","article-title":"Spatio-temporal analysis of the human footprint in South Ecuador: influence of human pressure on ecosystems and effectiveness of protected areas","volume":"78","author":"Tapia-Armijos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Applied Geography"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e8794","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.8794","article-title":"Fire and forage quality: postfire regrowth quality and pyric herbivory in subtropical grasslands of Nepal","volume":"12","author":"Thapa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1590\/0102-33062019abb0306","article-title":"Conservation of species-rich subtropical grasslands: traditional management vs. legal conservation requirements in primary and secondary grasslands","volume":"34","author":"Torchelsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Botanica Brasilica"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-023-00872-y","article-title":"Current forest\u2013savanna transition in Northern South America departs from typical climatic thresholds","volume":"27","author":"Valencia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e01208","DOI":"10.1002\/ehs2.1208","article-title":"Abandonment of croplands: problem or chance for grassland restoration? Case studies from Hungary","volume":"2","author":"Valk\u00f3","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecosystem Health and Sustainability"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1093\/biosci\/biv118","article-title":"Where tree planting and forest expansion are bad for biodiversity and ecosystem services","volume":"65","author":"Veldman","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781071802588","volume-title":"Spatial regression models","author":"Ward","year":"2018","edition":"2nd edn"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1071\/wf03027","article-title":"Customary use of fire by indigenous peoples in northern Australia: its contemporary role in savanna management","volume":"12","author":"Whitehead","year":"2003","journal-title":"International Journal of Wildland Fire"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5532","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.16300","article-title":"Encroachment diminishes herbaceous plant diversity in grassy ecosystems worldwide","volume":"28","author":"Wieczorkowski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Global Change Biology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-821139-7.00010-6","volume-title":"Imperiled: the encyclopedia of conservation","author":"Wikramanayake","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.10.1171","article-title":"Landsat: yesterday, today, and tomorrow","volume":"72","author":"Williams","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-017-0195-z","article-title":"Shoot-level flammability of species mixtures is driven by the most flammable species: implications for vegetation-fire feedbacks favouring invasive species","volume":"21","author":"Wyse","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1093\/jpe\/rty048","article-title":"Effect of groundwater depth on riparian plant diversity along riverside-desert gradients in the Tarim River","volume":"12","author":"Zeng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Plant Ecology"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.3390\/drones9040315","article-title":"Unravelling the characteristics of microhabitat alterations in floodplain inundated areas based on high-resolution UAV imagery and remote sensing: a case study in Jingjiang, Yangtze River","volume":"9","author":"Zheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Drones"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e02437","DOI":"10.1002\/eap.2437","article-title":"Woody encroachment happens via intensification, not extensification, of species ranges in an African savanna","volume":"31","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecological Applications"},{"key":"2026040116033106900_mcag051-B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-87458-6","volume-title":"Mixed effects models and extensions in ecology with R","author":"Zuur","year":"2009"}],"container-title":["Annals of Botany"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/aob\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/aob\/mcag051\/67270496\/mcag051.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/aob\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/aob\/mcag051\/67270496\/mcag051.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T20:03:38Z","timestamp":1775073818000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/aob\/advance-article\/doi\/10.1093\/aob\/mcag051\/8510274"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]]},"references-count":108,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/aob\/mcag051","relation":{},"ISSN":["1095-8290"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1095-8290","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]]},"article-number":"mcag051"}}