{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T05:57:35Z","timestamp":1772171855240,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,17]],"date-time":"2024-08-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1723852800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":229,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["204806\/Z\/16\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["204806\/Z\/16\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Academy Medical Sciences"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["INV-003079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INV-003079"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>Tsetse are the insects responsible for transmitting African trypanosomes, which cause sleeping sickness in humans and animal trypanosomiasis in wildlife and livestock. Knowing the age of these flies is important when assessing the effectiveness of vector control programs and modelling disease risk. Current methods to assess fly age are, however, labour-intensive, slow, and often inaccurate as skilled personnel are in short supply. Mid-infrared spectroscopy (MIRS), a fast and cost-effective tool to accurately estimate several biological traits of insects, offers a promising alternative. This is achieved by characterising the biochemical composition of the insect cuticle using infrared light coupled with machine\u2013learning (ML) algorithms to estimate the traits of interest. We tested the performance of MIRS in estimating tsetse sex and age for the first-time using spectra obtained from their cuticle. We used 541 insectary-reared Glossina m. morsitans of two different age groups for males (5 and 7\u2009weeks) and three age groups for females (3\u2009days, 5\u2009weeks, and 7\u2009weeks). Spectra were collected from the head, thorax, and abdomen of each sample. ML models differentiated between male and female flies with a 96% accuracy and predicted the age group with 94% and 87% accuracy for males and females, respectively. The key infrared regions important for discriminating sex and age classification were characteristic of lipid and protein content. Our results support the use of MIRS as a rapid and accurate way to identify tsetse sex and age with minimal pre-processing. Further validation using wild-caught tsetse could pave the way for this technique to be implemented as a routine surveillance tool in vector control programmes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/biomethods\/bpae058","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,17]],"date-time":"2024-08-17T14:34:36Z","timestamp":1723905276000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Advancing age grading techniques for <i>Glossina morsitans morsitans<\/i>, vectors of African trypanosomiasis, through mid-infrared spectroscopy and machine learning"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4259-0611","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauro","family":"Pazmi\u00f1o-Betancourth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow , G12 8QQ, Glasgow, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-8017-2079","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Casas G\u00f3mez-Uribarri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow , G12 8QQ, Glasgow, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0997-5600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karina","family":"Mondragon-Shem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine , L3 5QA, Liverpool, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4949-1117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon A","family":"Babayan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow , G12 8QQ, Glasgow, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5904-4070","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Baldini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow , G12 8QQ, Glasgow, United Kingdom"},{"name":"Environmental Health, and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute , Morogoro, Ifakara, P.O. Box 53, United Republic of Tanzania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8821-6479","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lee","family":"Rafuse Haines","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine , L3 5QA, Liverpool, United Kingdom"},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame , 46556, Notre Dame, United States"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI21052","article-title":"Human African trypanosomiasis of the CNS: current issues and challenges","volume":"113","author":"Kennedy","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-9-57","article-title":"The Atlas of human African trypanosomiasis: a contribution to global mapping of neglected tropical diseases","volume":"9","author":"Simarro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Health Geogr"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2021.02.007","article-title":"Genetic and immunological basis of human African trypanosomiasis","volume":"72","author":"Pays","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Opin Immunol"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)31510-6","article-title":"Human African trypanosomiasis","volume":"390","author":"B\u00fcscher","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0010047","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010047","article-title":"The elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: achievements in relation to WHO road map targets for 2020","volume":"16","author":"Franco","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B6","year":"2024"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2013.00053","article-title":"Through the dark continent: african trypanosome development in the tsetse fly","volume":"3","author":"Rotureau","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B8","first-page":"239","volume":"1","author":"Soltys","year":"1977","journal-title":"Parasitic protozoa"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2019.10.011","article-title":"Mosquito age grading and vector-control programmes","volume":"36","author":"Johnson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.en.23.010178.001435","article-title":"Reproductive physiology of glossina","volume":"23","author":"Tobe","year":"1978","journal-title":"Annu Rev Entomol"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1111\/mve.12439","article-title":"A model for the relationship between wing fray and chronological and ovarian ages in tsetse (Glossina spp)","volume":"34","author":"Hargrove","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fevo.2023.1057474","article-title":"Investigating the unaccounted ones: insights on age-dependent reproductive loss in a viviparous fly","volume":"11","author":"English","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Ecol Evol"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1805-x","article-title":"Influence of temperature and relative humidity on survival and fecundity of three tsetse strains","volume":"9","author":"Pagabeleguem","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-185x.1949.tb00574.x","article-title":"The biology of tsetse flies","volume":"24","author":"Jackson","year":"1949","journal-title":"Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc"},{"key":"2024091717373910800_bpae058-B15","first-page":"739","volume-title":"The Natural History of Tsetse Flies. 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