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The heterogeneous nature of disease across states complicates the evaluation of interventions for bipolar disorder patients, as varied interventional success is observed within and across individuals. We hypothesize that disease state acts as an effect modifier for the causal effect of a given intervention on health outcomes. To address this dilemma, we propose an N-of-1 approach using an adapted auto-regressive hidden Markov model, applied to longitudinal mobile health data collected from individuals with bipolar disorder. This method allows us to identify a latent variable from mobile health data to be treated as an effect modifier between the exposure and outcome of interest while allowing for missing data. A counterfactual approach is employed for causal inference and to obtain a g-formula estimator to recover said effect. The performance of the proposed method is compared with naive approaches across extensive simulations and application to a multi-year smartphone study of bipolar patients, evaluating the individual effect of social activity on sleep duration across different latent disease states.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/biomtc\/ujag131","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T11:53:09Z","timestamp":1783597989000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Individual causal effect estimation accounting for latent disease state modification among bipolar participants in mobile health studies"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"82","author":[{"given":"Charlotte R","family":"Fowler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematical Sciences, Worcester Polytechnic Institute , Worcester, MA 01609 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoxuan","family":"Cai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Statistics, Ohio State University , Columbus, OH 43210 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Habiballah","family":"Rahimi-Eichi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Technology in Psychiatry, McLean Hospital , Belmont, MA 02478 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisa","family":"Dixon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University , New York, NY 10032 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Justin T","family":"Baker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Technology in Psychiatry, McLean Hospital , Belmont, MA 02478 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6613-8668","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jukka-Pekka","family":"Onnela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. 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