{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T17:53:30Z","timestamp":1781718810636,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]],"date-time":"2021-02-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613520000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Landscape ecology has fundamentally changed the way ecologists view the world through a greater understanding of the links between spatial patterns and ecological processes. Until recently, landscape ecology has been largely a two-dimensional (2D) science focused on the spatial patterning of 2D planar surfaces rather than three-dimensional (3D) structures. Advances in high-resolution remote sensing technologies, such as laser altimetry, acoustic sensors, and photogrammetry now provide the capability to map complex ecosystem structure in three dimensions, creating more structurally realistic models of the environment. In the present article, we focus on high-resolution 3D structure, using terrestrial and marine examples to illustrate how state-of-the-art advances in landscape ecology achieved through novel data fusion, spatial analysis, and geovisualization of environmental data can provide new ecological insights. These examples provide a look to the future in landscape and seascape ecology, where continued progress toward a multidimensional science will fundamentally shift the way we view, explore, and conceptualize the world.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/biosci\/biab001","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,6]],"date-time":"2021-01-06T19:35:39Z","timestamp":1609961739000},"page":"596-608","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Advancing Landscape and Seascape Ecology from a 2D to a 3D Science"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"71","author":[{"given":"Christopher A","family":"Lepczyk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisa M","family":"Wedding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, UK, OX1 3QY"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gregory P","family":"Asner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ and Hilo, HI"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon J","family":"Pittman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Institute, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tristan","family":"Goulden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Ecological Observatory Network program managed by Battelle 1685 38th Street, Suite 100, Boulder, CO 80301"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marc A","family":"Linderman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographical and Sustainability Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeanne","family":"Gang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Studio Gang and a MacArthur Fellow, 1212 N Ashland Ave, Suite 212, Chicago, IL 60622"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rosalie","family":"Wright","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oxford University Centre for the Environment, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, UK, OX1 3 QY"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1624","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5041624","article-title":"Segmentation based classification of 3D urban point clouds: A super-voxel based approach with evaluation","volume":"5","author":"Aijazi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6056","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1611855114","article-title":"Effects of habitat disturbance on tropical forest biodiversity","volume":"114","author":"Alroy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180040","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2018.40","article-title":"A suite of global, cross-scale topographic variables for environmental and biodiversity modeling","volume":"5","author":"Amatulli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Scientific Data"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2005.06.004","article-title":"Horizontal resolution and data density effects on remotely sensed LIDAR-based DEM","volume":"132","author":"Anderson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.5589\/m06-030","article-title":"A rigorous assessment of tree height measurements obtained using airborne lidar and conventional field methods","volume":"32","author":"Andersen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1890\/120150","article-title":"Lightweight unmanned aerial vehicles will revolutionize spatial ecology","volume":"11","author":"Anderson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1002\/fee.1480","article-title":"Biodiversity in the city: Research priorities and knowledge gaps for urban green space planning and management","volume":"15","author":"Aronson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.07.003","article-title":"Spectral and chemical analysis of tropical forests: Scaling from leaf to canopy levels","volume":"112","author":"Asner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1890\/070152","article-title":"Airborne spectranomics: Mapping canopy chemical and taxonomic diversity in tropical forests","volume":"7","author":"Asner","year":"2009","journal-title":"Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013536","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2794018","article-title":"Carnegie Airborne Observatory: In-flight fusion of hyperspectral imaging and waveform light detection and ranging (wlidar) for three-dimensional studies of ecosystems","volume":"1","author":"Asner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4519","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0710811105","article-title":"Invasive plants alter 3-D structure of rainforests","volume":"105","author":"Asner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.06.012","article-title":"Carnegie Airborne Observatory-2: Increasing science data dimensionality via high-fidelity multi-sensor fusion","volume":"124","author":"Asner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.11.011","article-title":"Quantifying forest canopy foliar traits: Imaging spectroscopy versus field survey","volume":"158","author":"Asner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaj1987","article-title":"Airborne laser-guided imaging spectroscopy to map forest trait diversity and guide conservation","volume":"355","author":"Asner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.2307\/1937504","article-title":"The role of habitat complexity and heterogeneity in structuring tropical mammal communities","volume":"64","author":"August","year":"1983","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.3354\/meps09051","article-title":"Seascape ecology of coastal biogenic habitats: Advances, gaps, and challenges","volume":"427","author":"Bostr\u00f6m","year":"2011","journal-title":"Marine Ecology Progress Series"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12130","article-title":"Topographic determinants of mobile vertebrate predator hotspots: Current knowledge and future directions","volume":"90","author":"Bouchet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biological Reviews"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib18","first-page":"1","article-title":"The emerging role of lidar remote sensing in coastal research and resource management","volume":"53","author":"Brock","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Coastal Research Special Issue"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-003-0365-7","article-title":"LIDAR optical rugosity of coral reefs in Biscayne National Park","volume":"23","author":"Brock","year":"2004","journal-title":"Florida. Coral Reefs"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib20","first-page":"75","article-title":"Advances in topobathymetric mapping, models, and applications","volume":"76","author":"Brock","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Coastal Research"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2011.02.007","article-title":"Benthic habitat mapping: A review of progress towards improved understanding of the spatial ecology of the seafloor using acoustic techniques","volume":"92","author":"Brown","year":"2011","journal-title":"Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1077","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.1077","article-title":"Integrating structure-from-motion photogrammetry with geospatial software as a novel technique for quantifying 3D ecological characteristics of coral reefs","volume":"3","author":"Burns","year":"2015","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2019.10.004","article-title":"3D imaging insights into forests and coral reefs","volume":"35","author":"Calders","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1007\/s11056-019-09754-5","article-title":"Monitoring forest structure to guide adaptive management of forest restoration: A review of remote sensing approaches","volume":"51","author":"Camarretta","year":"2020","journal-title":"New Forests"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-016-1522-0","article-title":"Mapping coral reefs using consumer-grade drones and structure from motion photogrammetry techniques","volume":"36","author":"Casella","year":"2017","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-016-5272-7","article-title":"Enhancing urban landscape configurations by integrating 3D landscape pattern analysis with people's landscape preferences","volume":"75","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environmental Earth Sciences"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.03.015","article-title":"Merging land\u2013marine realms: Spatial patterns of seamless coastal habitats using a multispectral lidar","volume":"123","author":"Collin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.02.015","article-title":"High resolution topobathymetry using a Pleiades-1 triplet: Moorea Island in 3D","volume":"208","author":"Collin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9060531","article-title":"Examination of the potential of terrestrial laser scanning and structure-from-motion photogrammetry for rapid nondestructive field measurement of grass biomass","volume":"9","author":"Cooper","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e85555","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0085555","article-title":"Mapping reef fish and the seascape: Using acoustics and spatial modeling to guide coastal management","volume":"9","author":"Costa","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.05.019","article-title":"Ultra-fine grain landscape-scale quantification of dryland vegetation structure with drone-acquired structure-from-motion photogrammetry","volume":"183","author":"Cunliffe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/978-4-431-87771-4_5","article-title":"The gradient paradigm: A conceptual and analytical framework for landscape ecology","volume-title":"Spatial Complexity, Informatics, and Wildlife Conservation","author":"Cushman","year":"2010"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2014.10.005","article-title":"Advances in animal ecology from 3-D ecosystem mapping","volume":"29","author":"Davies","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s40462-015-0032-y","article-title":"Analysis and visualization of movement: An interdisciplinary review","volume":"3","author":"Dem\u0161ar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Movement Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022944019665","article-title":"Landscape pattern in topographically complex landscapes: Issues and techniques for analysis","volume":"17","author":"Dorner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Landscape Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20192383","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2019.2383","article-title":"Three-dimensional digital mapping of ecosystems: A new era in spatial ecology","volume":"287","author":"D'Urban Jackson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society B"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5021","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JC014859","article-title":"Collapsing complexity: Quantifying multiscale properties of reef topography","volume":"124","author":"Duvall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.08.018","article-title":"Beyond 3-D: The new spectrum of lidar applications for earth and ecological sciences","volume":"186","author":"Eitel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib39","volume-title":"An ArcGIS Toolbox for Surface Gradient and Geomorphometric Modeling, version 2.0-0","author":"Evans","year":"2014"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1007\/s13157-014-0558-6","article-title":"Assessing mangrove above-ground biomass and structure using terrestrial laser scanning: A case study in the Everglades National Park","volume":"34","author":"Feliciano","year":"2014","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1890\/13-1824.1","article-title":"Mapping tropical forest canopy diversity using high-fidelity imaging spectroscopy","volume":"24","author":"F\u00e9ret","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecological Applications"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1890\/13-1896.1","article-title":"Microtopographic controls on lowland Amazonian canopy diversity from imaging spectroscopy","volume":"24","author":"F\u00e9ret","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecological Applications"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0030-1299.2006.14148.x","article-title":"Beyond fragmentation: The continuum model for fauna research and conservation in human-modified landscapes","volume":"112","author":"Fischer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133317733667","article-title":"An illustrated introduction to general geomorphometry","volume":"41","author":"Florinsky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Progress in Physical Geography"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.85.4.281","article-title":"Active\u2013passive spaceborne data fusion for mapping nearshore bathymetry","volume":"85","author":"Forfinski-Sarkozi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.2307\/1308780","article-title":"Patches and Structural Components for a Landscape Ecology","volume":"31","author":"Forman","year":"1981","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-019-00772-4","article-title":"Ecological civilization: Perspectives from landscape ecology and landscape sustainability science","volume":"34","author":"Frazier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Landscape Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1017\/njg.2018.18","article-title":"3D subsurface characterisation of the Belgian Continental Shelf: A new voxel modelling approach","volume":"98","author":"Hademenos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Netherlands Journal of Geosciences"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1111\/ecog.04617","article-title":"Landscapemetrics: An open-source R tool to calculate landscape metrics","volume":"42","author":"Hesselbarth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3097\/LO.200803","article-title":"Effects of topography and surface roughness in analyses of landscape structure: A proposal to modify the existing set of landscape metrics","volume":"3","author":"Hoechstetter","year":"2008","journal-title":"Landscape Online"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.5589\/m07-029","article-title":"The influence of flying altitude, beam divergence, and pulse repetition frequency on laser pulse return intensity and canopy frequency distribution","volume":"33","author":"Hopkinson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.03.005","article-title":"Mapping forest structure for wildlife habitat analysis using waveform lidar: Validation of montane ecosystems","volume":"96","author":"Hyde","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.13189\/eer.2018.060501","article-title":"Geomorphometry in landscape ecology: Issues of scale, physiography, and application","volume":"6","author":"Ironside","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environment and Ecology Research"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.06.023","article-title":"Structure from motion will revolutionize analyses of tidal wetland landscapes","volume":"199","author":"Kalacska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-019-00861-4","article-title":"Three dimensional (3D) spatial metrics for objects","volume":"34","author":"Kedron","year":"2019","journal-title":"Landscape Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1002\/ajb2.1347","article-title":"The case for remote sensing of individual plants","volume":"106","author":"Kellner","year":"2019","journal-title":"American Journal of Botany"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133309338119","article-title":"Biogeography and landscape ecology: The way forward: Gradients and graph theory","volume":"33","author":"Kent","year":"2009","journal-title":"Progress in Physical Geography"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2014.08.018","article-title":"Understanding and quantifying landscape structure: A review on relevant process characteristics, data models and landscape metrics","volume":"295","author":"Lausch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecological Modelling"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3207","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-20-3207-2016","article-title":"A review of marine geomorphometry, the quantitative study of the seafloor","volume":"20","author":"Lecours","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hydrology and Earth System Sciences"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2002)052[0019:LRSFES]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Lidar remote sensing for ecosystem studies","volume":"52","author":"Lefsky","year":"2002","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1093\/biosci\/bix079","article-title":"Biodiversity in the city: Fundamental questions for understanding the ecology of urban green spaces for biodiversity conservation","volume":"67","author":"Lepczyk","year":"2017","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib62","first-page":"1693","article-title":"The relative influence of fire and herbivory on savanna three-dimensional vegetation structure","volume":"142","author":"Levick","year":"2009","journal-title":"."},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib63","first-page":"1943","article-title":"The problem of pattern and scale in ecology: The Robert H","volume":"73","author":"Levin","year":"1992","journal-title":"MacArthur Award Lecture. Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib64","first-page":"015003","article-title":"Multiscale analysis of surface morphologies by curvelet and contourlet transforms","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Surface Topography: Metrology and Properties"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2519","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160110097998","article-title":"Deriving DSMs from lidar data with kriging","volume":"23","author":"Lloyd","year":"2002","journal-title":"International Journal of Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1002\/rse2.157","article-title":"Mapping the world's coral reefs using a global multiscale Earth observation framework","volume":"6","author":"Lyons","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.2307\/1932254","article-title":"On bird species diversity","volume":"42","author":"MacArthur","year":"1961","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2515","DOI":"10.1080\/014311602100100848","article-title":"Measurement of habitat predictor variables for organism\u2013habitat models using remote sensing and image segmentation","volume":"24","author":"Mason","year":"2003","journal-title":"International Journal of Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1093\/forestscience\/49.3.457","article-title":"Influence of fusing lidar and multispectral imagery on remotely sensed estimates of stand density and mean tree height in a managed loblolly pine plantation","volume":"49","author":"McCombs","year":"2003","journal-title":"Forest Science"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib70","first-page":"1441","article-title":"Landscape pattern metrics","volume-title":"Encyclopedia of Environmetrics, 2nd ed","author":"McGarigal","year":"2013"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-009-9327-y","article-title":"Surface metrics: An alternative to patch metrics for the quantification of landscape structure","volume":"24","author":"McGarigal","year":"2009","journal-title":"Landscape Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib72","volume-title":"FRAGSTATS v4. University of Massachusetts","author":"McGarigal","year":"2012"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5221","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500219018","article-title":"Integrating LIDAR elevation data, multi-spectral imagery and neural network modelling for marsh Characterization","volume":"26","author":"Morris","year":"2005","journal-title":"International Journal of Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-2046(94)00183-4","article-title":"Interactions of landscapes and cultures","volume":"32","author":"Naveh","year":"1995","journal-title":"Landscape and Urban Planning"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133309346882","article-title":"Remote sensing and the future of landscape ecology","volume":"33","author":"Newton","year":"2009","journal-title":"Progress in Physical Geography"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11141634","article-title":"Validation of ICESat-2 ATLAS bathymetry and analysis of ATLAS's bathymetric mapping performance","volume":"11","author":"Parrish","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.12261","article-title":"Satellite remote sensing for applied ecologists: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"51","author":"Pettorelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib78","first-page":"1","article-title":"Geomorphometry: Diversity in quantitative surface analysis","volume":"24","author":"Pike","year":"2000","journal-title":"Progress in Physical Geography"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib79","first-page":"3","article-title":"Introducing seascape ecology","volume-title":"Seascape Ecology","author":"Pittman","year":"2018"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.2112\/SI53-004.1","article-title":"Using lidar bathymetry and boosted regression trees to predict the diversity and abundance of fish and corals","volume":"25","author":"Pittman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Coastal Research"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20583","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0020583","article-title":"Multi-scale approach for predicting fish species distributions across coral reef seascapes","volume":"65","author":"Pittman","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib82","first-page":"420","volume-title":"Importance of seascape complexity for resilient fish habitat and sustainable fisheries","author":"Pittman","year":"2011"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00158551","article-title":"A factor analysis of landscape pattern and structure metrics","volume":"10","author":"Riitters","year":"1995","journal-title":"Landscape Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XXXVIII-4-C26-21-2012","article-title":"3D geospatial modelling and visualization for marine environment: Study of the marine pelagic ecosystem of the south-eastern Beaufort Sea, Canadian Arctic","volume":"XXXVIII-4\/C26","author":"Sahlin","year":"2012","journal-title":"International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing, and Spatial Information Sciences"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2017.116","article-title":"A three-dimensional mapping of the ocean based on environmental data","volume":"30","author":"Sayre","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1890\/140327","article-title":"Computer and remote-sensing infrastructure to enhance large-sale testing of individual-based forest models","volume":"13","author":"Shugart","year":"2015","journal-title":"Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e5333","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0005333","article-title":"Fishery-independent data reveal negative effect of human population density on Caribbean predatory fish communities","volume":"4","author":"Stallings","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.07.030","article-title":"Airborne mapping of benthic reflectance spectra with Bayesian linear mixtures","volume":"200","author":"Thompson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e101205","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0101205","article-title":"Movement-based estimation and visualization of space use in 3D for wildlife ecology and conservation","volume":"9","author":"Tracey","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2004)054[0561:FAFRIS]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Forest attributes from radar interferometric structure and its fusion with optical remote sensing","volume":"54","author":"Treuhaft","year":"2004","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1967","DOI":"10.1890\/04-0890","article-title":"Landscape ecology in North America: Past, present and future","volume":"86","author":"Turner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences8030094","article-title":"Unified geomorphological analysis workflows with Benthic Terrain Modeler","volume":"8","author":"Walbridge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geosciences"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1080\/01490410802466504","article-title":"Determining the influence of seascape structure on coral reef fishes in Hawaii using an geospatial approach","volume":"31","author":"Wedding","year":"2008","journal-title":"Marine Geodesy"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.3354\/meps09119","article-title":"Quantifying seascape structure: Extending terrestrial spatial pattern metrics to the marine realm","volume":"427","author":"Wedding","year":"2011","journal-title":"Marine Ecology Progress Series"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3354\/esr00716","article-title":"Geospatial approaches to support pelagic conservation planning and adaptive management","volume":"30","author":"Wedding","year":"2016","journal-title":"Endangered Species Research"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1002\/rse2.115","article-title":"Remote sensing of three-dimensional coral reef structure enhances predictive modeling of fish assemblages","volume":"5","author":"Wedding","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00011-8","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning: An introduction and overview","volume":"54","author":"Wehr","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-008-9284-x","article-title":"Landscape ecology as a foundation for sustainable conservation","volume":"24","author":"Weins","year":"2009","journal-title":"Landscape Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420030754.ch1","article-title":"Lidar: Introduction","volume-title":"Laser Remote Sensing","author":"Weitkamp","year":"2005"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.13094","article-title":"Optimizing the use of biologgers for movement ecology research","volume":"89","author":"Williams","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.12.002","article-title":"Performance of habitat suitability models for the endangered black-capped vireo built with remotely sensed data","volume":"119","author":"Wilsey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of the Environment"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00283","article-title":"Seafloor mapping: The challenge of a truly global ocean bathymetry","volume":"6","author":"W\u00f6lfl","year":"2019","journal-title":"Frontiers in Marine Science"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-9292-2_7","article-title":"Integrated lidar and hyperspectral","volume-title":"Coral Reef Remote Sensing","author":"Wozencraft","year":"2013"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib104","volume-title":"Arc Marine: GIS for a Blue Planet","author":"Wright","year":"2007","edition":"1st ed."},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0175341","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0175341","article-title":"Cost and time-effective method for multi-scale measures of rugosity, fractal dimension, and vector dispersion from coral reef 3D models","volume":"12","author":"Young","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1080\/23754931.2019.1694967","article-title":"Combining IKONOS and bathymetric lidar data to improve reef habitat mapping in the Florida Keys","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Papers in Applied Geography"},{"key":"2021060200113460500_bib107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2018.12.012","article-title":"Advances in microclimate ecology arising from remote sensing","volume":"34","author":"Zellweger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology and Evolution"}],"container-title":["BioScience"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/academic.oup.com\/bioscience\/article-pdf\/71\/6\/596\/38444097\/biab001.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/academic.oup.com\/bioscience\/article-pdf\/71\/6\/596\/38444097\/biab001.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,22]],"date-time":"2024-08-22T00:00:16Z","timestamp":1724284816000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/bioscience\/article\/71\/6\/596\/6129935"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/biosci\/biab001","relation":{},"ISSN":["0006-3568","1525-3244"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0006-3568","type":"print"},{"value":"1525-3244","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]]}}}