{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T23:02:19Z","timestamp":1790636539579,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,1]]},"DOI":"10.1093\/bmb\/ldg031","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,2,2]],"date-time":"2004-02-02T20:24:40Z","timestamp":1075753480000},"page":"259-275","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":111,"title":["Risks associated with ionizing radiation"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"68","author":[{"given":"MP","family":"Little","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, St Mary\u2019s Campus, London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB1","unstructured":"Stevens LG . Injurious effects on the skin. BMJ1896; 1: 998"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB2","unstructured":"Gilchrist TC . A case of dermatitis due to the x rays. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp1897; 8(71): 17\u201322"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB3","unstructured":"Frieben A . Demonstration eines Cancroids des rechten Handr\u00fcckens, das sich nach langdauernder Einwirkung von R\u00f6ntgenstrahlen bei einem 33 j\u00e4hrigen Mann entwickelt hatte. Fortschr R\u00f6ntgenstr1902; 6: 106"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB4","unstructured":"United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes. Volume I: Sources. New York: United Nations, 2000"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB5","unstructured":"International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Publication 60. 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Ann ICRP1991; 21(1\u20133). Oxford: Pergamon"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB6","unstructured":"International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU). The Quality Factor in Radiation Protection. ICRU Report 40. Bethesda, MD: ICRU, 1986"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB7","unstructured":"National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). The Relative Biological Effectiveness of Radiations of Different Quality. NCRP Report No. 104. Bethesda, MD: NCRP, 1990"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Preston DL, Shimizn Y, Pierce DA, Suyama A, Kabuchi K. Studies of the mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 13: Solid cancer and noncancer disease mortality: 1950\u20131997. Radiat Res2003; 160: 381\u2013407","DOI":"10.1667\/RR3049"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB9","unstructured":"Edwards AA , Lloyd DC. Risk from deterministic effects of ionising radiation. Docs NRPB1996; 7(3): 1\u201331"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB10","unstructured":"United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation. UNSCEAR 1988 Report to the General Assembly, with Annexes. New York: United Nations, 1988"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otake M , Schull WJ, Lee S. Threshold for radiation-related severe mental retardation in prenatally exposed A-bomb survivors: a re-analysis. Int J Radiat Biol1996; 70: 755\u201363","DOI":"10.1080\/095530096144644"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otake M , Schull WJ. Review: Radiation-related brain damage and growth retardation among the prenatally exposed atomic bomb survivors. Int J Radiat Biol1998; 74: 159\u201371","DOI":"10.1080\/095530098141555"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP , Muirhead CR. Evidence for curvilinearity in the cancer incidence dose\u2013response in the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. Int J Radiat Biol1996; 70: 83\u201394","DOI":"10.1080\/095530096145364"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP , Muirhead CR. Curvature in the cancer mortality dose response in Japanese atomic bomb survivors: absence of evidence of threshold. Int J Radiat Biol1998; 74: 471\u201380","DOI":"10.1080\/095530098141348"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pierce DA , Preston DL. Radiation-related cancer risks at low doses among atomic bomb survivors. Radiat Res2000; 154: 178\u201386","DOI":"10.1667\/0033-7587(2000)154[0178:RRCRAL]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB16","unstructured":"United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes. Volume II: Effects. New York: United Nations, 2000"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB17","unstructured":"United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). Hereditary Effects of Radiation. UNSCEAR 2001 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annex. New York: United Nations, 2001"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB18","unstructured":"Neel JV , Schull WJ, Awa AA et al. The children of parents exposed to atomic bombs: estimates of the genetic doubling dose of radiation for humans. Am J Hum Genet1990; 46: 1053\u201372"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dubrova YE , Nesterov VN, Krouchinsky NG et al. Human minisatellite mutation rate after the Chernobyl accident. Nature1996; 380: 683\u20136","DOI":"10.1038\/380683a0"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dubrova YE , Bersimbaev RI, Djansugurova LB et al. Nuclear weapons tests and human germline mutation rate. Science2002; 295: 1037","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1068102"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB21","unstructured":"Boice JD Jr , Blettner M, Kleinerman RA et al. Radiation dose and leukemia risk in patients treated for cancer of the cervix. J Natl Cancer Inst1987; 79: 1295\u2013311"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB22","unstructured":"Boice JD Jr , Engholm G, Kleinerman RA et al. Radiation dose and second cancer risk in patients treated for cancer of the cervix. Radiat Res1988; 116: 3\u201355; 127: 118"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cardis E , Gilbert ES, Carpenter L et al. Effects of low doses and low dose rates of external ionizing radiation: cancer mortality among nuclear industry workers in three countries. Radiat Res1995; 142: 117\u201332","DOI":"10.2307\/3579020"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muirhead CR , Goodill AA, Haylock RGE et al. Occupational radiation exposure and mortality: second analysis of the National Registry for Radiation Workers. J Radiol Prot1999; 19: 3\u201326","DOI":"10.1088\/0952-4746\/19\/1\/002"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB25","unstructured":"US National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Committee on Health Risks of Exposure to Radon (BEIR VI). Health Effects of Exposure to Radon. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB26","unstructured":"US National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR V). Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1990"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB27","unstructured":"Muirhead CR , Cox R, Stather JW, MacGibbon BH, Edwards AA, Haylock RGE. Estimates of late radiation risks to the UK population. Docs NRPB1993; 4(4): 15\u2013157"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB28","unstructured":"International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Human Respiratory Tract Model for Radiological Protection. A Report of a Task Group of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Ann ICRP1994; 24(1\u20133): 1\u2013482. Oxford: Pergamon"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Birchall A , James AC. Uncertainty analysis of the effective dose per unit exposure from radon progeny and implications for ICRP risk-weighting factors. Radiat Prot Dosim1994; 53: 133\u201340","DOI":"10.1093\/rpd\/53.1-4.133"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP . Comparisons of lung tumour mortality risk in the Japanese A-bomb survivors and in the Colorado Plateau uranium miners: support for the ICRP lung model. Int J Radiat Biol2002; 78: 145\u201363","DOI":"10.1080\/09553000110095714"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP , Hawkins MM, Shore RE, Charles MW, Hildreth NG. Time variations in the risk of cancer following irradiation in childhood. Radiat Res1991; 126: 304\u201316; 132: 126","DOI":"10.2307\/3577920"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP , de Vathaire F, Charles MW, Hawkins MM, Muirhead CR. Variations with time and age in the risks of solid cancer incidence after radiation exposure in childhood. Stat Med1998; 17: 1341\u201355","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0258(19980630)17:12<1341::AID-SIM852>3.0.CO;2-6"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thompson DE , Mabuchi K, Ron E et al. Cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors. Part II: solid tumors, 1958\u20131987. Radiat Res1994; 137: S17\u2013S67; 139: 129","DOI":"10.2307\/3578892"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Preston DL , Kusumi S, Tomonaga M et al. Cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors. Part III: leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma, 1950\u20131987. Radiat Res1994; 137: S68\u2013S97; 139: 129","DOI":"10.2307\/3578893"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB35","unstructured":"United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. UNSCEAR 1993 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes. New York: United Nations, 1993"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pierce DA , Vaeth M. The shape of the cancer mortality dose\u2013response curve for the A-bomb survivors. Radiat Res1991; 126: 36\u201342","DOI":"10.2307\/3578168"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP , Charles MW. The risk of non-melanoma skin cancer incidence in the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. Int J Radiat Biol1997; 71: 589\u2013602","DOI":"10.1080\/095530097143923"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rowland RE , Stehney AF, Lucas HF Jr. Dose\u2013response relationships for female radium dial workers. Radiat Res1978; 76: 368\u201383","DOI":"10.2307\/3574786"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomas RG . The US radium luminisers: a case for a policy of \u2018below regulatory concern\u2019. J Radiol Prot1994; 14: 141\u201353","DOI":"10.1088\/0952-4746\/14\/2\/005"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomas DC , Blettner M, Day NE. Use of external rates in nested case-control studies with application to the International Radiation Study of Cervical Cancer patients. Biometrics1992; 48: 781\u201394","DOI":"10.2307\/2532344"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weiss HA , Darby SC, Fearn T, Doll R. Leukemia mortality after X-ray treatment for ankylosing spondylitis. Radiat Res1995; 142: 1\u201311","DOI":"10.2307\/3578960"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP , Weiss HA, Boice JD Jr, Darby SC, Day NE, Muirhead CR. Risks of leukemia in Japanese atomic bomb survivors, in women treated for cervical cancer, and in patients treated for ankylosing spondylitis. Radiat Res1999; 152: 280\u201392; 153: 243","DOI":"10.2307\/3580328"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brenner DJ , Little JB, Sachs RK. The bystander effect in radiation oncogenesis: II. A quantitative model. Radiat Res2001; 155: 402\u20138","DOI":"10.1667\/0033-7587(2001)155[0402:TBEIRO]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sawant SG , Randers-Pehrson G, Geard CR, Brenner DJ, Hall EJ. The bystander effect in radiation oncogenesis: I. Transformation in C3H 10T\u00bd cells in vitro can be initiated in the unirradiated neighbors of irradiated cells. Radiat Res2001; 155: 397\u2013401","DOI":"10.1667\/0033-7587(2001)155[0397:TBEIRO]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller RC , Randers-Pehrson G, Geard CR, Hall EJ, Brenner DJ. The oncogenic transforming potential of the passage of single a particles through mammalian cell nuclei. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA1999; 96: 19\u201322","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.96.1.19"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP , Wakeford R. The bystander effect in C3H 10T\u00bd cells and radon-induced lung cancer. Radiat Res2001; 156: 695\u20139","DOI":"10.1667\/0033-7587(2001)156[0695:TBEICC]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB47","unstructured":"United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. UNSCEAR 1994 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes. New York: United Nations, 1994"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP , Boice JD Jr. Comparison of breast cancer incidence in the Massachusetts tuberculosis fluoroscopy cohort and in the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. Radiat Res1999; 151: 218\u201324","DOI":"10.2307\/3579773"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Preston DL , Mattsson A, Holmberg E, Shore R, Hildreth NG, Boice JD Jr. Radiation effects on breast cancer risk: a pooled analysis of eight cohorts. Radiat Res2002; 158: 220\u201335; 666","DOI":"10.1667\/0033-7587(2002)158[0220:REOBCR]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muirhead CR , Darby SC. Modelling the relative and absolute risks of radiation-induced cancers. J R Stat Soc A1987; 150: 83\u2013118","DOI":"10.2307\/2981628"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP , Muirhead CR, Charles MW. Describing time and age variations in the risk of radiation-induced solid tumour incidence in the Japanese atomic bomb survivors using generalized relative and absolute risk models. Stat Med1999; 18: 17\u201333","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0258(19990115)18:1<17::AID-SIM991>3.0.CO;2-7"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP , Muirhead CR, Haylock RGE, Thomas JM. Relative risks of radiation-associated cancer: comparison of second cancer in therapeutically irradiated populations with the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. Radiat Environ Biophys1999; 38: 267\u201383","DOI":"10.1007\/s004110050167"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP . Comparison of the risks of cancer incidence and mortality following radiation therapy for benign and malignant disease with the cancer risks observed in the Japanese A-bomb survivors. Int J Radiat Biol2001; 77: 431\u201364; 745\u201360","DOI":"10.1080\/09553000010022634"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little MP . Cancer after exposure to radiation in the course of treatment for benign and malignant disease. Lancet Oncol2001; 2: 212\u201320","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(00)00291-6"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inskip PD , Stovall M, Flannery JT. Lung cancer risk and radiation dose among women treated for breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst1994; 86: 983\u20138","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/86.13.983"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB56","unstructured":"Davis FG , Boice JD Jr, Hrubec Z, Monson RR. Cancer mortality in a radiation-exposed cohort of Massachusetts tuberculosis patients. Cancer Res1989; 49: 6130\u20136"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Leeuwen FE , Klokman WJ, Stovall M et al. Roles of radiotherapy and smoking in lung cancer following Hodgkin\u2019s disease. J Natl Cancer Inst1995; 87: 1530\u20137","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/87.20.1530"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pierce DA , Sharp GB, Mabuchi K. Joint effects of radiation and smoking on lung cancer risk among atomic bomb survivors. Radiat Res2003; 159: 511\u2013520","DOI":"10.1667\/0033-7587(2003)159[0511:JEORAS]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"key\n\t\t\t\t20180712075043_BIB59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wong FL , Yamada M, Sasaki H, Kodama K, Akiba S, Shimaoka K, Hosoda Y. Noncancer disease incidence in the atomic bomb survivors: 1958\u20131986. Radiat Res1993; 135: 418\u2013430","DOI":"10.2307\/3578884"}],"container-title":["British Medical Bulletin"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/academic.oup.com\/bmb\/article-pdf\/68\/1\/259\/25152048\/ldg031.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,29]],"date-time":"2020-03-29T15:16:43Z","timestamp":1585495003000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/bmb\/article\/68\/1\/259\/421268"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,1]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,12]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/bmb\/ldg031","relation":{},"ISSN":["1471-8391","0007-1420"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1471-8391","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0007-1420","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2003,12]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,1]]}}}