{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T21:07:36Z","timestamp":1790802456626,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750118400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100022308","name":"Open Access Publishing Fund of Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100022308","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Learning is a fundamental aspect of human behaviour and is essential for adapting to new environments and situations. The ventral tegmental area is a critical brain area containing neurons that release dopamine to signal reward, drive learning and bias decision-making. Human data on the ventral tegmental area's effects on cognition are scarce, and no studies have causally manipulated the human ventral tegmental area. Here we studied a unique group of patients who had deep brain stimulation surgery in the ventral tegmental area to improve pain due to trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias refractory to medical therapy.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>In this study, we asked how deep brain stimulation, which aimed to inhibit the ventral tegmental area, affected reward-related learning and decision-making. Patients performed a reversal learning task while their deep brain stimulation was switched on versus off, in a powerful within-subject design. In the task, patients learned to choose between two options to win money, based on previous outcomes, but also made post-decision bets based on whether they thought they were likely to win. This allowed us also to investigate the effect of electrical stimulation within the ventral tegmental area on betting behaviour.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>We found that stimulation did not affect learning in this group of patients but led to a more strategic betting behaviour. First, stimulation reduced the bias whereby healthy people tend to bet similarly to the previous trial. Second, when on stimulation, bets were more strongly linked to the actual value of the choice. The data indicate that disrupting ventral tegmental area signals by electrical stimulation reduces the perseverative betting bias, permitting more strategic decision-making. We interpret this to mean that mesolimbic dopaminergic signals in humans may be important in producing persistence of reward-driven behaviours over time.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awaf210","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T07:41:44Z","timestamp":1750146104000},"page":"632-643","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Stimulation of the human ventral tegmental area increases strategic betting"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"149","author":[{"given":"Stephanie T","family":"Hirschbichler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology , London WC1N 3BG ,","place":["UK"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, University Hospital, NOE LGA, Karl Landsteiner University, 3100 St. P\u00f6lten ,","place":["Austria"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Medical University of Graz , 8036 Graz ,","place":["Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Susie","family":"Lagrata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Headache and Facial Pain Group, University College London (UCL) Queen Square Institute of Neurology and the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery , London WC1N 3BG ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicholas","family":"Shedd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology , London WC1N 3BG ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harith","family":"Akram","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology , London WC1N 3BG ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Petra","family":"Schwingenschuh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Medical University of Graz , 8036 Graz ,","place":["Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christoph","family":"Wai\u00df","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, University Hospital, NOE LGA, Karl Landsteiner University, 3100 St. P\u00f6lten ,","place":["Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefan","family":"Oberndorfer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, University Hospital, NOE LGA, Karl Landsteiner University, 3100 St. P\u00f6lten ,","place":["Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4960-2294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manjit S","family":"Matharu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Headache and Facial Pain Group, University College London (UCL) Queen Square Institute of Neurology and the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery , London WC1N 3BG ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0735-4349","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sanjay G","family":"Manohar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology , London WC1N 3BG ,","place":["UK"]},{"name":"Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital , Oxford OX3 9DU ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1080\/10286608.2020.1744133","article-title":"Bias and decision making\u2014An overview systems explanation","volume":"37","author":"Carmichael","year":"2020","journal-title":"Civ Eng Environ Syst"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2418","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2189-17.2017","article-title":"Adaptive history biases result from confidence-weighted accumulation of past choices","volume":"38","author":"Braun","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1126\/science.185.4157.1124","article-title":"Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases","volume":"185","author":"Tversky","year":"1974","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B4","first-page":"307","article-title":"The economic consequences of cognitive dissonance","volume":"72","author":"Akerlof","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am Econ Rev"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2018.07.052","article-title":"Confirmation bias through selective overweighting of choice-consistent evidence","volume":"28","author":"Talluri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.30.051606.094341","article-title":"Ventral tegmental area neurons in learned appetitive behavior and positive reinforcement","volume":"30","author":"Fields","year":"2007","journal-title":"Annu Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2016.165","article-title":"Ventral tegmental area: Cellular heterogeneity, connectivity and behaviour","volume":"18","author":"Morales","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2006.03.036","article-title":"Reward-motivated learning: Mesolimbic activation precedes memory formation","volume":"50","author":"Adcock","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-814405-3.00017-5","volume-title":"Patterning and cell type specification in the developing CNS and PNS (second edition)","author":"Blaess","year":"2020","edition":"Edi"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.22077","article-title":"Intrinsic connectivity between the hippocampus, nucleus accumbens, and ventral tegmental area in humans","volume":"23","author":"Kahn","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(02)00967-4","article-title":"Getting formal with dopamine and reward","volume":"36","author":"Schultz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.01.062","article-title":"Functional neuroanatomical review of the ventral tegmental area","volume":"191","author":"Trutti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08028","article-title":"Two types of dopamine neuron distinctly convey positive and negative motivational signals","volume":"459","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2011.10.056","article-title":"Aversive stimulus differentially triggers subsecond dopamine release in reward regions","volume":"201","author":"Budygin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4894","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0811507106","article-title":"Phasic excitation of dopamine neurons in ventral VTA by noxious stimuli","volume":"106","author":"Brischoux","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4693","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3886-12.2013","article-title":"Diversity and homogeneity in responses of midbrain dopamine neurons","volume":"33","author":"Fiorillo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2012","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2014.00139","article-title":"The causal role between phasic midbrain dopamine signals and learning","volume":"8","author":"Aquili","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Behav Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-013-0386-8","article-title":"The functional anatomy of impulse control disorders","volume":"13","author":"Probst","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1038\/nn2077","article-title":"Modulators of decision making","volume":"11","author":"Doya","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3422","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awaa335","article-title":"Effects of dopamine on reinforcement learning in Parkinson\u2019s disease depend on motor phenotype","volume":"143","author":"van Nuland","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-013-3313-4","article-title":"Differential, but not opponent, effects of L -DOPA and citalopram on action learning with reward and punishment","volume":"231","author":"Guitart-Masip","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology (Berl)"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22169","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.22169","article-title":"Catecholaminergic challenge uncovers distinct pavlovian and instrumental mechanisms of motivated (in)action","volume":"6","author":"Swart","year":"2017","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2011.03.028","article-title":"Inverted-U-shaped dopamine actions on human working memory and cognitive control","volume":"69","author":"Cools","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbp006","article-title":"The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: Version III--the final common pathway","volume":"35","author":"Howes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Schizophr Bull"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s42826-023-00172-5","article-title":"The mesocortical dopaminergic system cannot explain hyperactivity in an animal model of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)- spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR)","volume":"39","author":"Gungor Aydin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lab Anim Res"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3965","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhx259","article-title":"Beyond reward prediction errors: Human Striatum updates rule values during learning","volume":"28","author":"Ballard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cereb Cortex"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1009213","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1009213","article-title":"An association between prediction errors and risk-seeking: Theory and behavioral evidence","volume":"17","author":"Moeller","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.19793.1","article-title":"Recent advances in understanding the role of phasic dopamine activity","volume":"8","author":"Schultz","year":"2019","journal-title":"F1000Res."},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e63166","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.63166","article-title":"Tonic firing mode of midbrain dopamine neurons continuously tracks reward values changing moment-by-moment","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2014.08.033","article-title":"Overriding phasic dopamine signals redirects action selection during risk\/reward decision making","volume":"84","author":"Stopper","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2013.05.042","article-title":"Differential behavioral reinforcement effects of dopamine receptor agonists in the rat with bilateral lesion of the posterior ventral tegmental area","volume":"252","author":"Ouachikh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav Brain Res"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-023-02618-x","article-title":"Inhibition of ventral tegmental area projections to the nucleus accumbens shell increases premature responding in the five-choice serial reaction time task in rats","volume":"228","author":"Flores-Dourojeanni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Struct Funct"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2008.01.084","article-title":"Differential behavioral effects of partial bilateral lesions of ventral tegmental area or substantia nigra pars compacta in rats","volume":"153","author":"Pioli","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7376","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0848-23.2023","article-title":"Inhibition of dopamine neurons prevents incentive value encoding of a reward cue: With revelations from deep phenotyping","volume":"43","author":"Iglesias","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.01.001","article-title":"Prediction error as a linear function of reward probability is coded in human nucleus accumbens","volume":"31","author":"Abler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2014.00100","article-title":"Neurobiological underpinnings of reward anticipation and outcome evaluation in gambling disorder","volume":"8","author":"Linnet","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Behav Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2005.08.008","article-title":"The neural basis of financial risk taking","volume":"47","author":"Kuhnen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3932","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0433-05.2005","article-title":"Activation of orbital and medial prefrontal cortex by methylphenidate in cocaine-addicted subjects but not in controls: Relevance to addiction","volume":"25","author":"Volkow","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/0091-3057(82)90469-5","article-title":"Disruption of cocaine self-administration following 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the ventral tegmental area in rats","volume":"17","author":"Roberts","year":"1982","journal-title":"Pharmacol Biochem Behav"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2041","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2009.21","article-title":"Ventral striatal dopamine modulation of different forms of behavioral flexibility","volume":"34","author":"Haluk","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e26801","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.26801","article-title":"Effects of dopamine on reinforcement learning and consolidation in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"6","author":"Grogan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1676","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000002632","article-title":"Ventral tegmental area deep brain stimulation for refractory chronic cluster headache","volume":"86","author":"Akram","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1177\/0333102416640502","article-title":"Abnormal tyrosine metabolism in chronic cluster headache","volume":"37","author":"D\u2019Andrea","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2083","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000004646","article-title":"Optimal deep brain stimulation site and target connectivity for chronic cluster headache","volume":"89","author":"Akram","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1177\/0333102412449931","article-title":"Cluster headache and neuropsychological functioning","volume":"32","author":"Dresler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.125.3.356","article-title":"Pain demands attention: A cognitive-affective model of the interruptive function of pain","volume":"125","author":"Eccleston","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1093\/pm\/pny238","article-title":"Cognitive performance in episodic cluster headache","volume":"20","author":"Santos-Lasaosa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pain Med"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/head.12486","article-title":"The neuropsychology of cluster headache: Cognition, mood, disability, and quality of life of patients with chronic and episodic cluster headache","volume":"55","author":"Torkamani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Headache J Head Face Pain"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2021.01.015","article-title":"Reduced decision bias and more rational decision making following ventromedial prefrontal cortex damage","volume":"138","author":"Manohar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4281","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhaa007","article-title":"Frequency- and state-dependent network effects of electrical stimulation targeting the ventral tegmental area in macaques","volume":"30","author":"Murris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cereb Cortex"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awad433","article-title":"Theta frequency deep brain stimulation in the subthalamic nucleus improves working memory in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"147","author":"Salehi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain"},{"issue":"Suppl. 2","key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B52","first-page":"437","article-title":"Improving targeting in image-guided frame-based deep brain stimulation","volume":"67","author":"Holl","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2010.205542","article-title":"MRI-guided STN DBS in Parkinson\u2019s disease without microelectrode recording: Efficacy and safety","volume":"82","author":"Foltynie","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1428","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200111083451915","article-title":"Stereotactic stimulation of posterior hypothalamic gray matter in a patient with intractable cluster headache","volume":"345","author":"Leone","year":"2001","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(04)00904-4","article-title":"Functional neuroimaging of headaches","volume":"3","author":"S\u00e1nchez del Rio","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s11916-010-0099-5","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation in cluster headache: Hypothalamus or midbrain tegmentum?","volume":"14","author":"Matharu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr Pain Headache Rep"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2631","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aww204","article-title":"Ventral tegmental area deep brain stimulation in refractory short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks","volume":"139","author":"Miller","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2008.02.012","article-title":"Awareness, loss aversion, and post-decision wagering","volume":"12","author":"Schurger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B59","first-page":"497","volume-title":"Learning and computational neuroscience: Foundations of adaptive networks","author":"Sutton","year":"1990"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15647","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1014269108","article-title":"Understanding dopamine and reinforcement learning: The dopamine reward prediction error hypothesis","volume":"108","author":"Glimcher","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A."},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2366","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2014.84","article-title":"Role of dopamine D2 receptors in human reinforcement learning","volume":"39","author":"Eisenegger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aws083","article-title":"Dopamine and performance in a reinforcement learning task: Evidence from Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"135","author":"Shiner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2021.06.004","article-title":"What do reinforcement learning models measure? Interpreting model parameters in cognition and neuroscience","volume":"41","author":"Eckstein","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Opin Behav Sci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2017.08.025","article-title":"Dopamine neurons respond to errors in the prediction of sensory features of expected rewards","volume":"95","author":"Takahashi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2017.02.026","article-title":"Midbrain dopamine neurons signal belief in choice accuracy during a perceptual decision","volume":"27","author":"Lak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1924-6","article-title":"A distributional code for value in dopamine-based reinforcement learning","volume":"577","author":"Dabney","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1940","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1102941","article-title":"By carrot or by stick: Cognitive reinforcement learning in parkinsonism","volume":"306","author":"Frank","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4538","article-title":"Dopamine transients are sufficient and necessary for acquisition of model-based associations","volume":"20","author":"Sharpe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_01808","article-title":"How working memory and reinforcement learning are intertwined: A cognitive, neural, and computational perspective","volume":"34","author":"Yoo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Cogn Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B70","author":"Yishan"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2012.05.022","article-title":"Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory","volume":"49","author":"Barbey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2010.01.009","article-title":"How do you (estimate you will) like them apples? Integration as a defining trait of orbitofrontal function","volume":"20","author":"Schoenbaum","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr Opin Neurobiol"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-024-01586-7","article-title":"Dopamine projections to the basolateral amygdala drive the encoding of identity-specific reward memories","volume":"27","author":"Sias","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2017.74","article-title":"Prefrontal-hippocampal interactions in episodic memory","volume":"18","author":"Eichenbaum","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.07.015","article-title":"Circuit architecture of VTA dopamine neurons revealed by systematic input-output mapping","volume":"162","author":"Beier","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2020.10.003","article-title":"The role of executive function in shaping reinforcement learning","volume":"38","author":"Rmus","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Opin Behav Sci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4573","article-title":"Reinstated episodic context guides sampling-based decisions for reward","volume":"20","author":"Bornstein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E12398","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1809833115","article-title":"Ventral striatum\u2019s role in learning from gains and losses","volume":"115","author":"Taswell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhj120","article-title":"Cognitive inflexibility after prefrontal serotonin depletion is behaviorally and neurochemically specific","volume":"17","author":"Clarke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cereb Cortex"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2385","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp094","article-title":"Reward-learning and the novelty-seeking personality: A between- and within-subjects study of the effects of dopamine agonists on young Parkinson\u2019s patients","volume":"132","author":"B\u00f3di","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2007.12.014","article-title":"Executive function","volume":"18","author":"Gilbert","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.24.1.167","article-title":"An integrative theory of prefrontal Cortex function","volume":"24","author":"Miller","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annu Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-019-0557-7","article-title":"Dissociable roles for the ventral and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex in cue-guided risk\/reward decision making","volume":"45","author":"van Holstein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752420","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2021.752420","article-title":"Dopamine circuit mechanisms of addiction-like behaviors","volume":"15","author":"Poisson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Neural Circuits"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037015","article-title":"Opponent actor learning (OpAL): Modeling interactive effects of striatal dopamine on reinforcement learning and choice incentive","volume":"121","author":"Collins","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1093\/jnen\/60.1.15","article-title":"High frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus increases the extracellular contents of striatal dopamine in normal and partially dopaminergic denervated rats","volume":"60","author":"Bruet","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Neuropathol Exp Neurol"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(02)00463-9","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of subthalamic neurons increases striatal dopamine metabolism and induces contralateral circling in freely moving 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats","volume":"328","author":"Meissner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(01)01758-X","article-title":"Striatal dopaminergic metabolism is increased by deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in 6-hydroxydopamine lesioned rats","volume":"303","author":"Meissner","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-003-0188-z","article-title":"Chronic subthalamic nucleus stimulation and striatal D2 dopamine receptors in Parkinson\u2019s disease--A [(11)C]-raclopride PET study","volume":"250","author":"Thobois","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.10297","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus does not increase the striatal dopamine concentration in parkinsonian humans","volume":"18","author":"Hilker","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"issue":"Pt 2","key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B91","first-page":"299","article-title":"\u201cFrontal\u201d cognitive function in patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease \u201con\u201d and \u201coff\u201d levodopa","volume":"111","author":"Gotham","year":"1988","journal-title":"Brain (London)"},{"issue":"January","key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061578","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1061578","article-title":"High frequency deep brain stimulation can mitigate the acute effects of cocaine administration on tonic dopamine levels in the rat nucleus accumbens","volume":"17","author":"Yuen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(00)02166-1","article-title":"Intracranial self-stimulation increases differentially in vivo hydroxylation of tyrosine but similarly in vivo hydroxylation of tryptophan in rat medial prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens and striatum","volume":"864","author":"Nakahara","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain Res"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2177","DOI":"10.1177\/0271678X15615535","article-title":"The role of the mesolimbic dopamine system in the formation of blood-oxygen-level dependent responses in the medial prefrontal\/anterior cingulate cortex during high-frequency stimulation of the rat perforant pathway","volume":"36","author":"Helbing","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Cereb Blood Flow Metab"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2022.114122","article-title":"Electrophysiological and molecular effects of bilateral deep brain stimulation of the medial forebrain bundle in a rodent model of depression","volume":"355","author":"B\u00fchning","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp Neurol"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945912","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.945912","article-title":"A preclinical study of deep brain stimulation in the ventral tegmental area for alleviating positive psychotic-like behaviors in mice","volume":"16","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11657","article-title":"Ventral tegmental area GABA projections pause accumbal cholinergic interneurons to enhance associative learning","volume":"492","author":"Brown","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2020.03.022","article-title":"Ventral tegmental area dysfunction affects decision-making in patients with myotonic dystrophy type-1","volume":"128","author":"Serra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1105-1431","article-title":"Neurobiology of addiction: Treatment and public policy ramifications","volume":"8","author":"Dackis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2012.06.017","article-title":"Right on cue? Striatal reactivity in problem gamblers","volume":"72","author":"van Holst","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.2001.9611038.x","article-title":"Incentive-sensitization and addiction","volume":"96","author":"Robinson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2023.112523","article-title":"Dopaminergic and prefrontal dynamics co-determine mouse decisions in a spatial gambling task","volume":"42","author":"Bousseyrol","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Rep"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037128","article-title":"Dopamine modulates novelty seeking behavior during decision making","volume":"128","author":"Costa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Behav Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-020-0612-4","article-title":"Dorsal and ventral striatal dopamine D1 and D2 receptors differentially modulate distinct phases of serial visual reversal learning","volume":"45","author":"Sala-Bayo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2014.06.001","article-title":"Quality of life in Parkinson\u2019s disease patients with motor fluctuations and dyskinesias in five European countries","volume":"20","author":"Hechtner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parkinsonism Relat Disord"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-021-00924-3","article-title":"Pain induces adaptations in ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons to drive anhedonia-like behavior","volume":"24","author":"Markovic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1177\/0333102419839957","article-title":"Ventral tegmental area deep brain stimulation for chronic cluster headache: Effects on cognition, mood, pain report behaviour and quality of life","volume":"39","author":"Cappon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"2026020710020704900_awaf210-B108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2017.09.049","article-title":"Optogenetic blockade of dopamine transients prevents learning induced by changes in reward features","volume":"27","author":"Chang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Biol"}],"container-title":["Brain"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/brain\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/brain\/awaf210\/63510723\/awaf210.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/brain\/article-pdf\/149\/2\/632\/63510723\/awaf210.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/brain\/article-pdf\/149\/2\/632\/63510723\/awaf210.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]],"date-time":"2026-02-07T15:02:26Z","timestamp":1770476546000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/brain\/article\/149\/2\/632\/8165980"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]]},"references-count":108,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/brain\/awaf210","relation":{},"ISSN":["0006-8950","1460-2156"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0006-8950","type":"print"},{"value":"1460-2156","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]]}}}