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However, the causal contribution of these systems in human habit formation and expression remains unclear. In the current study, we applied 1-Hz inhibitory repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) targeting the inferior parietal cortex (IPL) and the dorsal premotor cortex (PMC) to interfere with goal- and habit-related brain systems, respectively. Two groups of participants (IPL\/PMC) received real or sham-rTMS on separate days prior to habit training. We found that TMS did not induce significant learning-related changes during habit learning. Importantly, we found a significantly increased habit expression during goal-habit competition following IPL stimulation. In contrast, while numerically, habit expression decreased following PMC stimulation, this effect did not reach statistical significance. Thereby, the current study provides direct causal evidence suggesting that habit expression is significantly influenced by the release of control from the goal-directed system, while evidence regarding the influence of the habit-related system remains less conclusive.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhaf341","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T13:14:13Z","timestamp":1765372453000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Probing the causal contribution of premotor and parietal cortex in habit formation and expression"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"36","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5628-9531","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoyu","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Dresden , Zellescher Weg 17, 01069, Dresden ,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Katharina","family":"Zwosta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Dresden , Zellescher Weg 17, 01069, Dresden ,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Franziska M","family":"Korb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Dresden , Zellescher Weg 17, 01069, Dresden ,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9793-3859","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hannes","family":"Ruge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Dresden , Zellescher Weg 17, 01069, Dresden ,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Uta","family":"Wolfensteller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Dresden , Zellescher Weg 17, 01069, Dresden ,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010700080922200_ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2013.12.003","article-title":"Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex: one decade on","volume":"18","author":"Aron","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"2026010700080922200_ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2010.02.001","article-title":"Cortical and basal ganglia contributions to habit learning and automaticity","volume":"14","author":"Ashby","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"2026010700080922200_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2009.131","article-title":"Human and rodent homologies in action control: corticostriatal determinants of goal-directed and habitual action","volume":"35","author":"Balleine","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"2026010700080922200_ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3993","article-title":"Learning-induced autonomy of sensorimotor systems","volume":"18","author":"Bassett","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"2026010700080922200_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9382","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-27678-6","article-title":"Causal role of the inferolateral prefrontal cortex in balancing goal-directed and habitual control of behavior","volume":"8","author":"Bogdanov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2026010700080922200_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/bne0000439","article-title":"The role of goal-directed and habitual processes in food consumption under stress after outcome devaluation with taste aversion","volume":"137","author":"Buabang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Behav Neurosci"},{"key":"2026010700080922200_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2216115120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2216115120","article-title":"What can machine learning teach us about habit formation? 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