{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T17:48:49Z","timestamp":1772646529856,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772582400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014155","name":"Heising-Simons Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2016-107"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016-107"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014155","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014155","name":"Heising-Simons Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2017-329"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017-329"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014155","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001624","name":"Foundation for Child Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#GU-03-2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#GU-03-2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001624","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001348","name":"Spencer Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#201800034"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#201800034"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001348","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"NIH","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000071","name":"NICHD","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#R01HD092324"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#R01HD092324"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000071","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"NIMH","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["#R01MH130705"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#R01MH130705"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>This study draws on repeated-measures data on a diverse (51% female; 54% Latine, 20% Black, and 11% White), low-\u00adincome cohort of children (N = 618) whose academic skills were assessed before and after COVID-19-induced school closures. Longitudinal models predicted changes in children's literacy and math trajectories from before school closures (ages 4\u20136; 2017\u20132019) to after school reopening (ages 8\u201311; 2021\u20132023) and tested whether remote learning participation moderated these changes. Results suggest that academic growth stagnated during school closures, with \u201closses\u201d ranging from 3 months of literacy growth to 14 months of math growth. Sufficient participation in remote learning was only slightly protective. After schools reopened, children's growth rates were slower than before school closures, but this may reflect normal developmental deceleration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/chidev\/aacaf030","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T14:45:29Z","timestamp":1772635529000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["COVID-19-induced school closures and disadvantaged children's post-COVID academic growth: A longitudinal cohort study"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2452-8120","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna M","family":"Wright","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Georgetown University , Washington, DC ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9392-4234","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anne","family":"Martin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Georgetown University , Washington, DC ,","place":["United States"]},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5184-9846","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seth D","family":"Pollak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison , Madison, WI ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Deborah A","family":"Phillips","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Georgetown University , Washington, DC ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7365-5169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriela","family":"Livas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Development and Family Sciences, University of Texas-Austin , Austin, TX ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9832-6724","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna\u00a0D","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Georgetown University , Washington, DC ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B1","author":"Amplify","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1037\/spq0000434","article-title":"Does the timing of kindergarten absences matter for children's early school success?","volume":"36","author":"Ansari","year":"2021","journal-title":"School Psychology"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1177\/10664807211052496","article-title":"Parental support, learning performance, and socioemotional development of children and teenagers during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"30","author":"Balayar","year":"2022","journal-title":"The Family Journal"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1111\/cdep.12387","article-title":"Child development during the COVID-19 pandemic through a life course theory lens","volume":"14","author":"Benner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Development Perspectives"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-022-01506-4","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the evidence on learning during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"7","author":"Betth\u00e4user","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature Human Behaviour"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B6","author":"Bielinski","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B7","author":"Callen","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1108\/IJILT-06-2020-0111","article-title":"Transitioning to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: Differences in access and participation among students in disadvantaged school districts","volume":"38","author":"Catalano","year":"2021","journal-title":"The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543066003227","article-title":"The effects of summer vacation on achievement test scores: A narrative and meta-analytic review","volume":"66","author":"Cooper","year":"1996","journal-title":"Review of Educational Research"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijedudev.2023.102835","article-title":"Effects of remote learning during COVID-19 lockdown on children\u2019s learning abilities and school performance: A systematic review","volume":"101","author":"Cort\u00e9s-Albornoz","year":"2023","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Development"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.23750\/abm.v91i1.9397","article-title":"WHO declares COVID-19 a pandemic","volume":"91","author":"Cucinotta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Bio-medica: Atenei Parmensis"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B12","author":"Curriculum Associates","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2378023120988200","DOI":"10.1177\/2378023120988200","article-title":"Remote or removed: Predicting successful engagement with online learning during COVID-19","volume":"7","author":"Domina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23328584221120254","DOI":"10.1177\/23328584221120254","article-title":"The effect of COVID on oral Reading fluency during the 2020\u20132021 academic year","volume":"8","author":"Domingue","year":"2022","journal-title":"AERA Open"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.13092","article-title":"COVID-19 and school closures","volume":"324","author":"Donohue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of the American Medical Association"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B16","author":"Dorn","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2021.105124","article-title":"Facilitating young children's numeracy talk in play: The role of parent prompts","volume":"207","author":"Eason","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Child Psychology"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B18","first-page":"1","volume-title":"School psychology in the 21st century: Issues and challenges","author":"Eckert","year":"2008"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2018.02.012","article-title":"Pre-kindergarten attendance matters: Early chronic absence patterns and relationships to learning outcomes","volume":"44","author":"Ehrlich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Early Childhood Research Quarterly"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B20","author":"EmpowerK12.","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B21","author":"Fahle","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1177\/00346446211017797","article-title":"Economic inequality, the digital divide, and remote learning during COVID-19","volume":"49","author":"Francis","year":"2022","journal-title":"The Review of Black Political Economy"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1080\/10824669.2018.1438201","article-title":"Chronic absenteeism and preschool children's executive functioning skills development","volume":"23","author":"Fuhs","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1086\/730115","article-title":"The COVID-19 pandemic and oral Reading fluency","volume":"124","author":"Furjanic","year":"2024","journal-title":"The Elementary School Journal"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.29333\/ajqr\/8471","article-title":"Parents\u2019 experiences with remote education during COVID-19 school closures","volume":"4","author":"Garbe","year":"2020","journal-title":"American Journal of Qualitative Research"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2023.101632","article-title":"What was a gap is now a chasm: Remote schooling, the digital divide, and educational inequities resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"7","author":"Golden","year":"2023","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Psychology"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B27","author":"Goldhaber","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2021.793285","article-title":"Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on elementary school teachers\u2019 practices and perceptions across the spring and fall 2020 semesters","volume":"6","author":"Goodrich","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frontiers in Education"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23328584211041350","DOI":"10.1177\/23328584211041350","article-title":"Disparities in educational access in the time of COVID: Evidence from a nationally representative panel of American families","volume":"7","author":"Haderlein","year":"2021","journal-title":"AERA Open"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23328584251338816","DOI":"10.1177\/23328584251338816","article-title":"Tracing the impact of COVID-19 on early language and literacy development from pre-k through first grade","volume":"11","author":"Hadley","year":"2025","journal-title":"AERA Open"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","author":"Halloran","year":"2021","DOI":"10.3386\/w29497"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1111\/fare.12684","article-title":"\u201cIt brought my family more together\u201d: Mixed-methods study of low-income U.S. mothers during the pandemic","volume":"71","author":"Haskett","year":"2022","journal-title":"Family Relations"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B33","author":"Institute of Education Sciences (IES)","year":".."},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1111\/fare.12597","article-title":"Chaos during the COVID-19 outbreak: Predictors of household chaos among low-income families during a pandemic","volume":"71","author":"Johnson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Family Relations"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B35","author":"Kalil","year":"2020,"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B36","author":"Karpman","year":"2020,"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B37","author":"Kogan","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B38","author":"Koma","year":"2020"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B39","author":"Kuhfeld","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B40","author":"Kuhfeld","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B41","author":"Kuhfeld","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23328584221099306","DOI":"10.1177\/23328584221099306","article-title":"The COVID-19 school year: Learning and recovery across 2020\u20132021","volume":"8","author":"Kuhfeld","year":"2022","journal-title":"AERA Open"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X20965918","article-title":"Projecting the potential impact of COVID-19 school closures on academic achievement","volume":"49","author":"Kuhfeld","year":"2020","journal-title":"Educational Researcher"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23328584251330165","DOI":"10.1177\/23328584251330165","article-title":"The COVID-19 pandemic\u2019s disruptions to preschool children\u2019s cognitive, social-emotional, and executive functioning skills","volume":"11","author":"Le","year":"2025","journal-title":"AERA Open"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B45","author":"Lewis","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2022.115173","article-title":"Material hardship level and unpredictability in relation to U.S. households\u2019 family interactions and emotional well-being: Insights from the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"307","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Social Science & Medicine"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B47","volume-title":"Technical manual. Woodcock-Johnson III normative update","author":"McGrew","year":"2007"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.38.1.115","article-title":"Comparative longitudinal structural analyses of the growth and decline of multiple intellectual abilities over the life span","volume":"38","author":"McArdle","year":"2002","journal-title":"Developmental psychology"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B48","author":"National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B49","author":"National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B50","author":"National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B51","author":"National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B52","author":"National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)","year":"2021,"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B53","author":"National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)","year":".."},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1177\/1468798411417080","article-title":"The role of environmental print in emergent literacy","volume":"12","author":"Neumann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Early Childhood Literacy"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B73","author":"Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE)","year":"2017,  31"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","author":"Peters","year":"2023","DOI":"10.26300\/z2ek-4937"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B56","volume-title":"COVID-19 impacts on student learning","author":"Pier","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-022-10387-y","article-title":"The COVID-19 impact on reading achievement growth of grade 3\u20135 students in a U.S. urban school district: Variation across student characteristics and instructional modalities","volume":"36","author":"Relyea","year":"2022","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B58","author":"Renaissance Learning","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/S0193-3973(00)00051-4","article-title":"An ecological perspective on the transition to kindergarten: A theoretical framework to guide empirical research","volume":"21","author":"Rimm-Kaufman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4135\/9781473920712","volume-title":"Multilevel modeling in plain language","author":"Robson","year":"2016"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1177\/0192513X211042852","article-title":"Family disruption and parenting during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"44","author":"Schmeer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Family Issues"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195152968.001.0001","volume-title":"Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence","author":"Singer","year":"2003"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1044\/0161-1461(2008\/07-0016)","article-title":"Reading trajectories of children with language difficulties from preschool through fifth grade","volume":"39","author":"Skibbe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2013.11.006","article-title":"Formal and informal home learning activities in relation to children\u2019s early numeracy and literacy skills: The development of a home numeracy model","volume":"121","author":"Skwarchuk","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Child Psychology"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B64","author":"Slavin","year":"2020"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B65","volume-title":"Examining the impact of COVID-19 on the \u00adidentification of at-risk students: Fall 2021 literacy screening findings","author":"Solari","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0292670","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0292670","article-title":"Parent psychological distress and parent-child relationships two years into the COVID-19 pandemic: Results from a Canadian cross-sectional study","volume":"18","author":"Thomson","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2004.01.007","article-title":"Early mathematical experiences: Observing young Black and White children's everyday activities","volume":"19","author":"Tudge","year":"2004","journal-title":"Early Childhood Research Quarterly"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022060352L","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2022-060352L","article-title":"In-person instruction and educational outcomes of K\u20138 students during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"152","author":"Uthappa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B69","volume-title":"Woodcock-Johnson III tests of achievement. Rolling meadows","author":"Woodcock","year":"2001"},{"key":"2026030409452124200_aacaf030-B70","author":"Young","year":"2024"}],"container-title":["Child Development"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/chidev\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/chidev\/aacaf030\/67226730\/aacaf030.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/chidev\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/chidev\/aacaf030\/67226730\/aacaf030.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T14:45:32Z","timestamp":1772635532000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/chidev\/advance-article\/doi\/10.1093\/chidev\/aacaf030\/8505765"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Elisabeth","family":"Conradt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shauna","family":"Cooper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]]},"references-count":73,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/chidev\/aacaf030","relation":{},"ISSN":["1467-8624"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1467-8624","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]]},"article-number":"aacaf030"}}