{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T18:08:31Z","timestamp":1782410911313,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"8","funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000072","name":"National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000072","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000098","name":"NIH Clinical Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000098","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000054","name":"National Cancer Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000054","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["75N91019D00024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N91019D00024"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["75N91019F00130"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N91019F00130"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,17]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Most studies of immunity to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) measure antibody or cellular responses in blood; however, the virus infects mucosal surfaces in the nose and conjunctivae and infectious virus is rarely if ever present in the blood.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>We used luciferase immunoprecipitation assays to measure SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels in the plasma, nose, and saliva of infected persons and vaccine recipients. These assays measure antibody that can precipitate the SAR-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid proteins.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Levels of plasma anti-spike antibody declined less rapidly than levels of anti-nucleocapsid antibody in infected persons. SARS-CoV-2 anti-spike antibody levels in the nose declined more rapidly than antibody levels in the blood after vaccination of infected persons. Vaccination of previously infected persons boosted anti-spike antibody in plasma more than in the nose or saliva. Nasal and saliva anti-spike antibody levels were significantly correlated with plasma antibody in infected persons who had not been vaccinated and after vaccination of uninfected persons.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Persistently elevated SARS-CoV-2 antibody in plasma may not indicate persistence of antibody at mucosal sites such as the nose. The strong correlation of SARS-CoV-2 antibody in the nose and saliva with that in the blood suggests that mucosal antibodies are derived primarily from transudation from the blood rather than local production. While SARS-CoV-2 vaccine given peripherally boosted mucosal immune responses in infected persons, the increase in antibody titers was higher in plasma than at mucosal sites. Taken together, these observations indicate the need for development of mucosal vaccines to induce potent immune responses at sites where SARS-CoV-2 infection occurs.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Clinical Trials Registration<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>NCT01306084.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac934","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,7]],"date-time":"2022-12-07T16:58:18Z","timestamp":1670432298000},"page":"1391-1399","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Comparison of Levels of Nasal, Salivary, and Plasma Antibody to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 During Natural Infection and After Vaccination"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"76","author":[{"given":"Jeffrey I","family":"Cohen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lesia","family":"Dropulic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kening","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krista","family":"Gangler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kayla","family":"Morgan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Sciences, Medical Science and Computing , Rockville, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kelly","family":"Liepshutz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Research, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research , Frederick, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tammy","family":"Krogmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mir A","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biostatistics Research Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Monitoring Research Program Directorate, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research , Frederick, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua S","family":"Vogel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yona","family":"Lei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lui P","family":"Suzuki-Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chris","family":"Spalding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hospital Epidemiology Service, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tara N","family":"Palmore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hospital Epidemiology Service, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter D","family":"Burbelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adeno-Associated Virus Biology Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, Maryland , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023070503342967900_ciac934-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabj0299","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abj0299","article-title":"Immune correlates of protection by mRNA-1273 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in nonhuman 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