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Recent efforts and partnerships between local and international researchers have helped to provide new data on the incidence and control of typhoid in parts of Asia and Africa. Here, we highlight examples from India, Nepal, Vietnam, Fiji, Sierra Leone, and Malawi that summarize past and present experiences with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of typhoid fever in different locations with endemic disease. While there is no validated road map for the elimination of typhoid, the lessons learned in studying the epidemiology and control of typhoid in these settings can provide insights to guide future disease control efforts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz611","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,4]],"date-time":"2019-09-04T15:28:14Z","timestamp":1567610894000},"page":"S395-S401","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["The Invisible Burden: Diagnosing and Combatting Typhoid Fever in Asia and Africa"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"69","author":[{"given":"Virginia E","family":"Pitzer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Meiring","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oxford Vaccine Group, Department of Paediatrics, University of Oxford, and the National Institute for Health Research Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Frederick P","family":"Martineau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Global Health and Development and, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Conall H","family":"Watson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, United Kingdom"},{"name":"Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gagandeep","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Health Sciences Technology Institute, Faridabad, Haryana, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Buddha","family":"Basnyat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom"},{"name":"Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Patan Academy of Health Sciences, Kathmandu, Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen","family":"Baker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e570","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(14)70301-8","article-title":"Burden of typhoid fever in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic, literature-based update with risk-factor adjustment","volume":"2","author":"Mogasale","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0005376","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005376","article-title":"The burden of typhoid fever in low- and middle-income countries: a meta-regression approach","volume":"11","author":"Antill\u00f3n","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30685-6","article-title":"The global burden of typhoid 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Accessed 14 January 2019."},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200104263441701","article-title":"The efficacy of a Salmonella typhi Vi conjugate vaccine in two-to-five-year-old children","volume":"344","author":"Lin","year":"2001","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0039","first-page":"31","article-title":"The incidence of typhoid fever in Fiji from 1995\u20132009","volume":"1","author":"Kumar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Fiji Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12367","article-title":"Typhoid fever in Fiji: a reversible plague?","volume":"19","author":"Thompson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"issue":"6","key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0728","article-title":"Impact of a targeted typhoid vaccination campaign following cyclone Tomas, Republic of Fiji, 2010","volume":"90","author":"Scobie","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0005786","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005786","article-title":"A cross-sectional seroepidemiological survey of typhoid fever in Fiji","volume":"11","author":"Watson","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0043","first-page":"53","article-title":"Laboratory-based Salmonella surveillance in Fiji, 2004\u20132005","volume":"12","author":"Dunn","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pac Health Dialog"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3143","article-title":"Variation at HLA-DRB1 is associated with resistance to enteric fever","volume":"46","author":"Dunstan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"issue":"6","key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0006571","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006571","article-title":"Epidemiology and risk factors for typhoid fever in Central Division, Fiji, 2014\u20132017: a case-control study","volume":"12","author":"Prasad","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0046","author":"Jenkins"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2402.170704","article-title":"Role of environmental factors in shaping spatial distribution of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi, Fiji","volume":"24","author":"de Alwis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0048","first-page":"321","article-title":"Thoughts on contagion","volume":"30","author":"Winterbottom","year":"1828","journal-title":"Edinb Med Surg J"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0049","article-title":"Sierra Leone annual report of the Medical and Sanitary Department for the year 1932.","volume-title":"Medical Department, Sierra Leone","year":"1932"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0050","article-title":"Development plan of the health care services of Sierra Leone.","volume-title":"Leone GoS","author":"Government of Sierra Leone.","year":"1962"},{"key":"2019121022404943300_CIT0051","volume-title":"The Health Services in Sierra Leone. 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