{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T23:17:32Z","timestamp":1787008652243,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,1]],"date-time":"2025-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Many viruses can cause persistent infection and\/or viral shedding in immunocompromised hosts. This is a well-described occurrence not only with SARS-CoV-2 but for many other viruses as well. Understanding how viruses evolve and mutate in these patients and the global impact of this phenomenon is critical as the immunocompromised population expands.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Content<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In this review, we provide an overview of populations at risk for prolonged viral shedding, clinical manifestations of persistent viral infection, and methods of assessing viral evolution. We then review the literature on viral evolution in immunocompromised patients across an array of RNA viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, norovirus, influenza, and poliovirus, and discuss the global implications of persistent viral infections in these hosts.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Summary<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>There is significant evidence for accelerated viral evolution and accumulation of mutations in antigenic sites in immunocompromised hosts across many viral pathogens. However, the implications of this phenomenon are not clear; while there are rare reports of transmission of these variants, they have not clearly been shown to predict disease outbreaks or have significant global relevance. Emerging methods including wastewater monitoring may provide a more sophisticated understanding of the impact of variants that evolve in immunocompromised hosts on the wider host population.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/hvae150","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,7]],"date-time":"2024-09-07T06:40:38Z","timestamp":1725691238000},"page":"109-118","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Virus Evolution in Prolonged Infections of Immunocompromised Individuals"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"71","author":[{"given":"Zoe","family":"Raglow","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2906-8335","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam S","family":"Lauring","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI ,","place":["United States"]},{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2023.28019","article-title":"Prevalence of immunosuppression among US adults","volume":"331","author":"Martinson","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B2"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2291","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2031364","article-title":"Persistence and evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in an immunocompromised host","volume":"383","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2436","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2202861","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 evolution and immune escape in immunocompromised patients","volume":"386","author":"Scherer","year":"2022","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa666","article-title":"Prolonged severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 replication in an immunocompromised patient","volume":"223","author":"Baang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3235","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-38867-x","article-title":"Sequential intrahost evolution and onward transmission of SARS-CoV-2 variants","volume":"14","author":"Gonzalez-Reiche","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"veac080","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/veac080","article-title":"The origins and molecular evolution of SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.1.7 in the UK","volume":"8","author":"Hill","year":"2022","journal-title":"Virus Evol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2018.02.059","article-title":"New insights into physiopathology of immunodeficiency-associated vaccine-derived poliovirus infection; systematic review of over 5 decades of data","volume":"36","author":"Shaghaghi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.08.021","article-title":"Emerging pandemic diseases: how we got to COVID-19","volume":"182","author":"Morens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(20)30172-5","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV viral load dynamics, duration of viral shedding, and infectiousness: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"2","author":"Cevik","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e235","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(23)00336-1","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 shedding and evolution in patients who were immunocompromised during the omicron period: a multicentre, prospective analysis","volume":"5","author":"Raglow","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.1097\/TP.0000000000002191","article-title":"The third international consensus guidelines on the management of cytomegalovirus in solid-organ transplantation","volume":"102","author":"Kotton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transplantation"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11247542","article-title":"Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: biology and treatment options","volume":"11","author":"Clerico","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e144","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac077","article-title":"Prolonged shedding of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) at high viral loads among hospitalized immunocompromised persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), South Africa","volume":"75","author":"Meiring","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadk1599","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.adk1599","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 viral clearance and evolution varies by type and severity of immunodeficiency","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28550","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.28550","article-title":"Factors affecting prolonged SARS-CoV-2 infection and development and validation of predictive nomograms","volume":"95","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Med Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.3390\/v12060619","article-title":"Infectious norovirus is chronically shed by immunocompromised pediatric hosts","volume":"12","author":"Davis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-06429-5","article-title":"Prolonged viral shedding of SARS-CoV-2 in two immunocompromised patients, a case report","volume":"21","author":"Niyonkuru","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.10.049","article-title":"Case study: prolonged infectious SARS-CoV-2 shedding from an asymptomatic immunocompromised individual with cancer","volume":"183","author":"Avanzato","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-022-01313-6","article-title":"Long-term SARS-CoV-2 asymptomatic carriage in an immunocompromised host: clinical, immunological, and virological implications","volume":"42","author":"Spinicci","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0148258","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0148258","article-title":"Long-term shedding of influenza virus, parainfluenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus and nosocomial epidemiology in patients with hematological disorders","volume":"11","author":"Lehners","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfn693","article-title":"Chronic norovirus infection in renal transplant recipients","volume":"24","author":"Westhoff","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nephrol Dial Transplant"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-018-3441-x","article-title":"Case presentation: persistent adenovirus b3 infections associated with bronchiolitis obliterans treated with cidofovir in a child with mosaic tetrasomy 9p","volume":"18","author":"Ions","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1999.0003","article-title":"Evolution of poliovirus type I during 5.5 years of prolonged enteral replication in an immunodeficient patient","volume":"265","author":"Bellmunt","year":"1999","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2893","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.36.10.2893-2899.1998","article-title":"Prolonged replication of a type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus in an immunodeficient patient","volume":"36","author":"Kew","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16150-3","article-title":"Failure to clear persistent vaccine-derived neurovirulent poliovirus infection in an immunodeficient man","volume":"363","author":"MacLennan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.67.785.301","article-title":"Prolonged faecal excretion of poliovirus in a nurse with common variable hypogammaglobulinaemia","volume":"67","author":"Misbah","year":"1991","journal-title":"Postgrad Med J"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-virology-010320-061642","article-title":"Within-host viral diversity: a window into viral evolution","volume":"7","author":"Lauring","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu Rev Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1090727","article-title":"Unifying the epidemiological and evolutionary dynamics of pathogens","volume":"303","author":"Grenfell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2016.09.016","article-title":"Recent advances in inferring viral diversity from high-throughput sequencing data","volume":"239","author":"Posada-Cespedes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Virus Res"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2019.01.013","article-title":"Application of deep sequencing methods for inferring viral population diversity","volume":"266","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Virol Methods"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-020-00791-w","article-title":"Best practices for variant calling in clinical sequencing","volume":"12","author":"Koboldt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genome Med"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2014.12.022","article-title":"Recombination in viruses: mechanisms, methods of study, and evolutionary consequences","volume":"30","author":"Perez-Losada","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0265423","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.02654-23","article-title":"Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 genome evolutionary patterns","volume":"12","author":"Gupta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microbiol Spectr"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2012.06.006","article-title":"Modelling viral evolution and adaptation: challenges and rewards","volume":"2","author":"Manrubia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr Opin Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01031-17","article-title":"Complexities of viral mutation rates","volume":"92","author":"Peck","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"veaa010","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/veaa010","article-title":"Linking influenza virus evolution within and between human hosts","volume":"6","author":"Xue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virus Evol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B38","first-page":"1786","article-title":"Analyses of evolutionary dynamics in viruses are hindered by a time-dependent bias in rate estimates","volume":"281","author":"Duchene","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc Biol Sci"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3893","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.7.3893-3897.2003","article-title":"Molecular clocks and the puzzle of RNA virus origins","volume":"77","author":"Holmes","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2560","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-30163-4","article-title":"Cumulative SARS-CoV-2 mutations and corresponding changes in immunity in an immunocompromised patient indicate viral evolution within the host","volume":"13","author":"Sonnleitner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.03.027","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 evolution in an immunocompromised host reveals shared neutralization escape mechanisms","volume":"184","author":"Clark","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03291-y","article-title":"Sars-cov-2 evolution during treatment of chronic infection","volume":"592","author":"Kemp","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3219","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.06712-11","article-title":"Contribution of intra- and interhost dynamics to norovirus evolution","volume":"86","author":"Bull","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix520","article-title":"Whole-genome next-generation sequencing to study within-host evolution of norovirus (NoV) among immunocompromised patients with chronic NoV infection","volume":"216","author":"van Beek","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.00371","article-title":"Intrahost norovirus evolution in chronic infection over 5 years of shedding in a kidney transplant recipient","volume":"9","author":"Steyer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Microbiol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2021.102802","article-title":"Prolonged norovirus infections correlate to quasispecies evolution resulting in structural changes of surface-exposed epitopes","volume":"24","author":"Afridi","year":"2021","journal-title":"iScience"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S176","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/175.Supplement_1.S176","article-title":"Duration of poliovirus excretion and its implications for acute flaccid paralysis surveillance: a review of the literature","volume":"175","author":"Alexander","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.3390\/v13071407","article-title":"The molecular evolution of type 2 vaccine-derived polioviruses in individuals with primary immunodeficiency diseases","volume":"13","author":"Kitamura","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3001","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.7.3001-3010.2000","article-title":"Evolution of the sabin strain of type 3 poliovirus in an immunodeficient patient during the entire 637-day period of virus excretion","volume":"74","author":"Martin","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1086\/596052","article-title":"Transmission of imported vaccine-derived poliovirus in an undervaccinated community in Minnesota","volume":"199","author":"Alexander","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12623","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.20.12623-12634.2005","article-title":"Intratypic recombination among lineages of type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus emerging during chronic infection of an immunodeficient patient","volume":"79","author":"Yang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1068284","article-title":"Outbreak of poliomyelitis in Hispaniola associated with circulating type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus","volume":"296","author":"Kew","year":"2002","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3042","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.02.035","article-title":"Neutralization capacity of highly divergent type 2 vaccine-derived polioviruses from immunodeficient patients","volume":"38","author":"McDonald","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"issue":"Pt 5","key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.18974-0","article-title":"Nucleotide variation in sabin type 2 poliovirus from an immunodeficient patient with poliomyelitis","volume":"84","author":"Buttinelli","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Gen Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1008080","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008080","article-title":"Infectious vaccine-derived rubella viruses emerge, persist, and evolve in cutaneous granulomas of children with primary immunodeficiencies","volume":"15","author":"Perelygina","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1003343","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003343","article-title":"Prolonged influenza virus shedding and emergence of antiviral resistance in immunocompromised patients and ferrets","volume":"9","author":"van der Vries","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1086\/651610","article-title":"Rapid selection of a transmissible multidrug-resistant influenza A\/H3N2 virus in an immunocompromised host","volume":"201","author":"Memoli","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1086\/508777","article-title":"Characterization of multidrug-resistant influenza A\/H3N2 viruses shed during 1 year by an immunocompromised child","volume":"43","author":"Baz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.03.014","article-title":"Influenza virus resistance to neuraminidase inhibitors","volume":"98","author":"Samson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2018.10.009","article-title":"Clinical management and viral genomic diversity analysis of a child's influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 infection in the context of a severe combined immunodeficiency","volume":"160","author":"Pichon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e26875","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.26875","article-title":"Parallel evolution of influenza across multiple spatiotemporal scales","volume":"6","author":"Xue","year":"2017","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1086\/520243","article-title":"Antigenic drift of influenza a (H3N2) virus in a persistently infected immunocompromised host is similar to that occurring in the community","volume":"29","author":"McMinn","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-018-0741-x","article-title":"Individual immune selection pressure has limited impact on seasonal influenza virus evolution","volume":"3","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat Ecol Evol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5756","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03063-14","article-title":"What is the reservoir of emergent human norovirus strains?","volume":"89","author":"Karst","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4303","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01308-10","article-title":"Chronic shedders as reservoir for nosocomial transmission of norovirus","volume":"48","author":"Sukhrie","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vex018","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/vex018","article-title":"Persistent infections in immunocompromised hosts are rarely sources of new pathogen variants","volume":"3","author":"Eden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Virus Evol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6928a4","article-title":"Update on immunodeficiency-associated vaccine-derived polioviruses\u2014worldwide, July 2018-December 2019","volume":"69","author":"Macklin","year":"2020","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1005114","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005114","article-title":"Twenty-eight years of poliovirus replication in an immunodeficient individual: impact on the global polio eradication initiative","volume":"11","author":"Dunn","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2316","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1008677","article-title":"Vaccine-derived poliomyelitis 12 years after infection in Minnesota","volume":"364","author":"DeVries","year":"2011","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.10.011","article-title":"The early evolution of oral poliovirus vaccine is shaped by strong positive selection and tight transmission bottlenecks","volume":"29","author":"Valesano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1428","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1511410","article-title":"Ebola RNA persistence in semen of Ebola virus disease survivors\u2014final report","volume":"377","author":"Deen","year":"2017","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw793","article-title":"Ebola virus persistence in breast milk after no reported illness: a likely source of virus transmission from mother to child","volume":"64","author":"Sissoko","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofz068","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofz068","article-title":"Comprehensive clinical and laboratory follow-up of a female patient with Ebola virus disease: Sierra Leone Ebola virus persistence study","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03901-9","article-title":"Resurgence of Ebola virus in 2021 in Guinea suggests a new paradigm for outbreaks","volume":"597","author":"Keita","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw601","article-title":"Resurgence of Ebola virus disease in Guinea linked to a survivor with virus persistence in seminal fluid for more than 500 days","volume":"63","author":"Diallo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00827-19","article-title":"Metagenomic next-generation sequencing of the 2014 Ebola virus disease outbreak in the democratic republic of the Congo","volume":"57","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-02378-w","article-title":"Ebola virus can lie low and reactivate after years in human survivors","volume":"597","author":"Garry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2423","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1500306","article-title":"Persistence of Ebola virus in ocular fluid during convalescence","volume":"372","author":"Varkey","year":"2015","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30386-5","article-title":"Late Ebola virus relapse causing meningoencephalitis: a case report","volume":"388","author":"Jacobs","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2020.03.003","article-title":"Measles virus persistence and its consequences","volume":"41","author":"Griffin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Opin Virol"},{"key":"2025010523242067800_hvae150-B81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e335","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(23)00372-5","article-title":"Tracing the origin of SARS-CoV-2 omicron-like spike sequences detected in an urban sewershed: a targeted, longitudinal surveillance study of a cryptic wastewater lineage","volume":"5","author":"Shafer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"}],"container-title":["Clinical Chemistry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/clinchem\/article-pdf\/71\/1\/109\/61284022\/hvae150.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/clinchem\/article-pdf\/71\/1\/109\/61284022\/hvae150.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,5]],"date-time":"2025-01-05T23:25:02Z","timestamp":1736119502000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/clinchem\/article\/71\/1\/109\/7933589"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,3]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,3]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/clinchem\/hvae150","relation":{},"ISSN":["0009-9147","1530-8561"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0009-9147","type":"print"},{"value":"1530-8561","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}}}