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Particularly concerning are endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) due to their ability to mimic or interfere with hormone signalling. Given the fundamental role of hormones in regulating immunity and reproduction, androgenic EDCs are predicted to impact immunocompetence and associated life-history trade-offs. Yet, despite their potency and environmental ubiquity, the effects of androgenic EDCs on immune function and reproductive allocation remain poorly understood. Here, we tested how exposure to the androgenic agricultural pollutant 17\u03b2-trenbolone affects immunity and reproductive investment in eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki). Adult mosquitofish were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of trenbolone (control: 0\u00a0ng\/l, low: 11\u2009\u00b1\u20092.9\u00a0ng\/l, high: 101\u2009\u00b1\u200913.6\u00a0ng\/l) for 45\u00a0days. Immune function was assessed using phytohaemagglutinin (PHA)-induced skin swelling, white blood cell (WBC) counts and neutrophil\u2013lymphocyte ratio (NLR), while male reproductive investment was quantified by sperm production. Trenbolone exposure significantly impaired immunity, reducing PHA-induced swelling by ~25%, decreasing total WBC counts and increasing NLRs, a biomarker of inflammation and immune response. In contrast, trenbolone exposure increased sperm number, and we found an overall negative correlation between immune response and sperm production. Our findings highlight how androgenic pollutants can simultaneously compromise immunity and alter reproductive allocation, enforcing evolutionary trade-offs that could negatively affect individual fitness and population resilience in contaminated environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/conphys\/coag052","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T11:52:52Z","timestamp":1783597972000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Androgenic agricultural pollution suppresses immune function and alters reproductive allocation in eastern mosquitofish"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2576-0922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Upama","family":"Aich","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences (M092), University of Western Australia , 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA 6009 ,","place":["Australia"]},{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, Monash University , 25 Rainforest Walk, Clayton, VIC 3800 ,","place":["Australia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriel","family":"Melhado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, Monash University , 25 Rainforest Walk, Clayton, VIC 3800 ,","place":["Australia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raiko","family":"Rafeeq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, Monash University , 25 Rainforest Walk, Clayton, VIC 3800 ,","place":["Australia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7123-7924","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Morelia","family":"Camacho-Cervantes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico , Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City 04510 ,","place":["Mexico"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7947-6473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jack","family":"Manera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, Monash University , 25 Rainforest Walk, Clayton, VIC 3800 ,","place":["Australia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bob B M","family":"Wong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, Monash University , 25 Rainforest Walk, Clayton, VIC 3800 ,","place":["Australia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026072405422683200_ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1111\/evo.14498","article-title":"Separating the effects of paternal age and mating history: evidence for sex-specific paternal effect in eastern mosquitofish","volume":"76","author":"Aich","year":"2022","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"2026072405422683200_ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2006.3764","article-title":"Testosterone and oxidative stress: the oxidation handicap hypothesis","volume":"274","author":"Alonso-Alvarez","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc R Soc B"},{"key":"2026072405422683200_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.5620220623","article-title":"Effects of the androgenic growth promoter 17-\u03b2-trenbolone on fecundity and reproductive endocrinology of the fathead minnow","volume":"22","author":"Ankley","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ Toxicol Chem"},{"key":"2026072405422683200_ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.4163","article-title":"A critical review of the environmental occurrence and potential effects in aquatic vertebrates of the potent androgen receptor agonist 17\u03b2-trenbolone","volume":"37","author":"Ankley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ Toxicol Chem"},{"key":"2026072405422683200_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13439","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b02385","article-title":"Evaluation of statistical treatments of left-censored environmental data using coincident uncensored data sets. 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