{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T06:14:15Z","timestamp":1790835255846,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":163,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,5]],"date-time":"2021-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633392000000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100020407","name":"ERA-Net on Cardiovascular Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["JTC2016-40-158"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JTC2016-40-158"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100020407","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Investitionsbank Berlin","award":["10169096"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10169096"]}]},{"name":"Investitionsbank Berlin","award":["10169098"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10169098"]}]},{"name":"Investitionsbank Berlin","award":["10169028"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10169028"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Infection of the heart muscle with cardiotropic viruses is one of the major aetiologies of myocarditis and acute and chronic inflammatory cardiomyopathy (DCMi). However, viral myocarditis and subsequent dilated cardiomyopathy is still a challenging disease to diagnose and to treat and is therefore a significant public health issue globally. Advances in clinical examination and thorough molecular genetic analysis of intramyocardial viruses and their activation status have incrementally improved our understanding of molecular pathogenesis and pathophysiology of viral infections of the heart muscle. To date, several cardiotropic viruses have been implicated as causes of myocarditis and DCMi. These include, among others, classical cardiotropic enteroviruses (Coxsackieviruses B), the most commonly detected parvovirus B19, and human herpes virus 6. A newcomer is the respiratory virus that has triggered the worst pandemic in a century, SARS-CoV-2, whose involvement and impact in viral cardiovascular disease is under scrutiny. Despite extensive research into the pathomechanisms of viral infections of the cardiovascular system, our knowledge regarding their treatment and management is still incomplete. Accordingly, in this review, we aim to explore and summarize the current knowledge and available evidence on viral infections of the heart. We focus on diagnostics, clinical relevance and cardiovascular consequences, pathophysiology, and current and novel treatment strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvab315","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,30]],"date-time":"2021-09-30T20:45:30Z","timestamp":1633034730000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Cardiovascular consequences of viral infections: from COVID to other viral diseases"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Heinz-Peter","family":"Schultheiss","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy, IKDT GmbH, Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Baumeier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy, IKDT GmbH, Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1661-159X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heiko","family":"Pietsch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy, IKDT GmbH, Berlin, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine and Cardiology, Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charit\u00e9 - Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin and Humboldt-Universit\u00e4t zu Berlin, Berlin 13353, Germany"},{"name":"DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2773-486X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C -Thomas","family":"Bock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Viral Gastroenteritis and Hepatitis Pathogens and Enteroviruses, Department of Infectious Diseases, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin 13353 Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of T\u00fcbingen, T\u00fcbingen 72074, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2805-6634","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Poller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Berlin, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charit\u00e9 - Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin and Humboldt-Universit\u00e4t zu Berlin, Berlin12203, Germany"},{"name":"Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies (BCRT), Charit\u00e9 - Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin and Humboldt-Universit\u00e4t zu Berlin, Berlin 13353, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0678-5681","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felicitas","family":"Escher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy, IKDT GmbH, Berlin, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine and Cardiology, Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charit\u00e9 - Universit\u00e4tsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin and Humboldt-Universit\u00e4t zu Berlin, Berlin 13353, Germany"},{"name":"DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2636","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/eht210","article-title":"Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of myocarditis: a position statement of the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases","volume":"34","author":"Caforio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur Heart J"},{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60648-X","article-title":"Myocarditis","volume":"379","author":"Sagar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-019-0084-1","article-title":"Dilated cardiomyopathy","volume":"5","author":"Schultheiss","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Prim"},{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcad.2009.11.006","article-title":"Myocarditis","volume":"52","author":"Blauwet","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prog Cardiovasc Dis"},{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-57613-8_10","article-title":"Cardiac autoimmunity: myocarditis","volume":"1003","author":"Bracamonte-Baran","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol"},{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B90","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/suz033","article-title":"Myocarditis evolving in cardiomyopathy: when genetics and offending causes work together","volume":"21","author":"Cannata","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur Heart J Suppl"},{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1097\/BOR.0000000000000303","article-title":"Viral myocarditis","volume":"28","author":"Rose","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr Opin Rheumatol"},{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1007\/s00428-019-02615-8","article-title":"The spectrum of myocarditis: from pathology to the clinics","volume":"475","author":"Leone","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virchows Arch"},{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc0911362","article-title":"Human parvovirus B19\u2013associated myocarditis","volume":"362","author":"Bock","year":"2010","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2016.05.013","article-title":"Myocarditis in clinical practice","volume":"91","author":"Sinagra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mayo Clin Proc"},{"key":"2021101514260653000_cvab315-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S282213","article-title":"Understanding COVID-19 pandemic: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic strategies. 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