{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T16:12:25Z","timestamp":1792512745655,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]],"date-time":"2021-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"funder":[{"name":"Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council","award":["435-2018-1498"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["435-2018-1498"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,14]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Historically it has been reported that deaf students do not achieve age-appropriate outcomes in reading, with this performance often being characterized in terms of a fourth grade ceiling. However, given the shifts in the field during the past 20\u00a0years (e.g., widespread implementation of newborn hearing screening, advances in hearing technologies), it would be timely to question whether this continues to serve as a meaningful benchmark. To this end, the purpose of this study was to investigate reading outcomes of a Canadian cohort of school-aged deaf learners (N\u2009=\u200970) who all used listening and spoken language as the primary mode of communication. Specifically, the goal was to establish whether their achievement approached that of their hearing age peers and to identify demographic factors influencing performance (i.e., gender, unilateral\/bilateral hearing loss, personal amplification, level of auditory functioning, grade placement, additional disabilities, home language). Results indicate that participants obtained standard scores in the average range on both the Basic Reading and Reading Comprehension clusters of the Woodcock Johnson III-Diagnostic Reading Battery (Woodcock et al., 2004), surpassing the fourth grade reading achievement ceiling often reported for this population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enab013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,4]],"date-time":"2021-05-04T16:58:20Z","timestamp":1620147500000},"page":"427-437","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Reading Achievement of Deaf Students: Challenging the Fourth Grade Ceiling"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Connie","family":"Mayer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Education, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beverly J","family":"Trezek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gregory R","family":"Hancock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref1","first-page":"161","volume-title":"Deaf children in America","author":"Allen","year":"1986"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021070819463475900_ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enz050","article-title":"Language and reading progress of young deaf and hard-of-hearing children","volume":"25","author":"Antia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"},{"issue":"Supplement","key":"2021070819463475900_ref3","first-page":"312","article-title":"Categories of Auditory Performance","volume":"166","author":"Archbold","year":"1995","journal-title":"Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780190215194.003.0002","volume-title":"Educating deaf learners: Creating a global evidence base","author":"Archbold","year":"2015"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021070819463475900_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1080\/00220671.1921.10879176","article-title":"The measurement of language: What is measured and its significance","volume":"4","author":"Ashbaugh","year":"1921","journal-title":"The Journal of Educational Research"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref6","first-page":"421","volume-title":"Handbook of early literacy research","author":"Barnett","year":"2001"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021070819463475900_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-4274","article-title":"Age at intervention for permanent hearing loss and 5-year language outcomes","volume":"140","author":"Ching","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref8","author":"Consortium for Research in Deaf Education","year":"2019"},{"issue":"sup2","key":"2021070819463475900_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1080\/14992027.2018.1458703","article-title":"Longitudinal outcomes of children with hearing impairment (LOCHI): 5 year data","volume":"57","author":"Cowan","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Audiology"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021070819463475900_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/rrq.60","article-title":"Predictors of early reading skill in 5-year-old children with hearing loss who use spoken language","volume":"49","author":"Cupples","year":"2013","journal-title":"Reading Research Quarterly"},{"issue":"6","key":"2021070819463475900_ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1111\/jir.12493","article-title":"Language development in deaf or hard-of-hearing children with additional disabilities: Type matters","volume":"62","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Intellectual Disability Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021070819463475900_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1353\/aad.2012.1611","article-title":"States\u2019 reading outcomes of students who are d\/deaf and hard of hearing","volume":"157","author":"Easterbrooks","year":"2012","journal-title":"American Annals of the Deaf"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021070819463475900_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enm007","article-title":"Children with cochlear implants and complex needs: A review of outcome research and psychological practice","volume":"12","author":"Edwards","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021070819463475900_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.otc.2011.08.024","article-title":"Language outcomes after cochlear implantation","volume":"45","author":"Ganek","year":"2012","journal-title":"Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America"},{"issue":"1 Suppl","key":"2021070819463475900_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49S","DOI":"10.1097\/AUD.0b013e3181fa41fa","article-title":"Reading, writing, and phonological processing skills of adolescents with 10 or more years of cochlear implant experience","volume":"32","author":"Geers","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ear & Hearing"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref16","volume-title":"Test of written language","author":"Hammill","year":"2009","edition":"4th"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref16a","article-title":"The impact of cochlear implants on deaf children's literacy","author":"Harris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021070819463475900_ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1044\/2016_JSLHR-H-15-0403","article-title":"Literacy outcomes for primary school children who are deaf and hard of hearing: A cohort comparison study","volume":"60","author":"Harris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021070819463475900_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/env072","article-title":"Academic achievement of deaf and hard-of-hearing students in an ASL\/English bilingual program","volume":"21","author":"Hrastinski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021070819463475900_ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enm013","article-title":"Effects of cochlear implants on reading and academic achievement","volume":"12","author":"Marschark","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref20","volume-title":"Handbook of deaf studies, language and education","author":"Marschark","year":"2010"},{"issue":"4","key":"2021070819463475900_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enm020","article-title":"What really matters in the early literacy development of deaf children","volume":"12","author":"Mayer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref22","first-page":"144","volume-title":"Handbook of deaf studies, language and education","author":"Mayer","year":"2010"},{"issue":"4","key":"2021070819463475900_ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1353\/aad.2014.0032","article-title":"Is reading different for deaf individuals? Re-examining the role of phonology","volume":"159","author":"Mayer","year":"2014","journal-title":"American Annals of the Deaf"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199965694.001.0001","volume-title":"Early literacy development in deaf children","author":"Mayer","year":"2015"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021070819463475900_ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enx043","article-title":"Literacy outcomes in deaf students with cochlear implants: Current state of the knowledge","volume":"23","author":"Mayer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"},{"issue":"5","key":"2021070819463475900_ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1353\/aad.2020.0003","article-title":"English literacy outcomes in sign bilingual programs: Current state of the knowledge","volume":"164","author":"Mayer","year":"2020","journal-title":"American Annals of the Deaf"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref27","volume-title":"Educating the deaf: Psychology, principles, and practices","author":"Moores","year":"2001","edition":"5th"},{"issue":"4","key":"2021070819463475900_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/env030","article-title":"Reading efficiency of deaf and hearing people in Spanish","volume":"20","author":"Moreno-Perez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021070819463475900_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/5.1.9","article-title":"How do children who can\u2019t hear learn to read an alphabetic script? A review of the literature on reading and deafness","volume":"5","author":"Musselman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021070819463475900_ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1080\/14643154.2018.1555119","article-title":"A descriptive study of language and literacy skills of early school-aged children with unilateral and mild to moderate bilateral hearing loss","volume":"22","author":"Nassrallah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Deafness & Education International"},{"issue":"4","key":"2021070819463475900_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci9020134","article-title":"Children who are deaf\/hard of hearing with disabilities: Paths to language and literacy","volume":"9","author":"Nelson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Education Sciences"},{"issue":"12","key":"2021070819463475900_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijporl.2008.09.003","article-title":"Speech production in deaf implanted children with additional disabilities and comparison with age-equivalent implanted children without such disorders","volume":"72","author":"Nikolopoulos","year":"2008","journal-title":"International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref33","volume-title":"Language and deafness","author":"Paul","year":"2009","edition":"4th"},{"issue":"4","key":"2021070819463475900_ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci9040286","article-title":"Conclusion: Perspectives on language, literacy, and deafness","volume":"9","author":"Paul","year":"2019","journal-title":"Education Sciences"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv2rcnmd7","volume-title":"Deaf students and the qualitative similarity hypothesis: Understanding language and literacy development","author":"Paul","year":"2013"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021070819463475900_ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/5.1.32","article-title":"Reading optimally builds on spoken language: Implications for deaf readers","volume":"5","author":"Perfetti","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021070819463475900_ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2014-307516","article-title":"The impact of universal newborn hearing screening on long-term literacy outcomes: A prospective cohort study","volume":"101","year":"2016","journal-title":"Archives of Disease in Childhood"},{"issue":"6","key":"2021070819463475900_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1037\/h0072260","article-title":"A measure of the language ability of deaf children","volume":"23","author":"Pintner","year":"1916","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021070819463475900_ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enr028","article-title":"Large scale academic achievement testing of deaf and hard-of-hearing students: Past, present, and future","volume":"17","author":"Qi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref40","first-page":"445","volume-title":"Handbook of early literacy research","author":"Ramey","year":"2006"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021070819463475900_ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1002\/lio2.156","article-title":"Language development in the pediatric cochlear implant patient","volume":"3","author":"Ruben","year":"2017","journal-title":"Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref42","volume-title":"Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery","author":"Schrank","year":"2004"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref43","volume-title":"Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery","author":"Schrank","year":"2004"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109984","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijporl.2020.109984","article-title":"Hearing and speech benefits of cochlear implantation in children: A review of the literature","volume":"133","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology"},{"issue":"6","key":"2021070819463475900_ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1044\/2020_PERSP-20-10006","article-title":"Reading achievement in children with hearing loss who use listening and spoken language: Results and implications from a 2-year study","volume":"5","author":"Smolen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups"},{"issue":"4","key":"2021070819463475900_ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/5.4.337","article-title":"Measuring up to performance standards in reading and mathematics: Achievement of selected deaf and hard of hearing students in the national norming of the 9th edition Stanford Achievement Test","volume":"5","author":"Traxler","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref47","volume-title":"Reading and deafness: Theory, research and practice","author":"Trezek","year":"2010"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref48","author":"U.S. Department of Education","year":"2020"},{"key":"2021070819463475900_ref49","volume-title":"Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery","author":"Woodcock","year":"2004"}],"container-title":["The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jdsde\/article-pdf\/26\/3\/427\/38617328\/enab013.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jdsde\/article-pdf\/26\/3\/427\/38617328\/enab013.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,26]],"date-time":"2022-12-26T05:11:50Z","timestamp":1672031510000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jdsde\/article\/26\/3\/427\/6290559"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,14]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/deafed\/enab013","relation":{},"ISSN":["1081-4159","1465-7325"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1081-4159","type":"print"},{"value":"1465-7325","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]]}}}