{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T02:50:49Z","timestamp":1774234249421,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772236800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":58,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Canadian Foundation for Innovation"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Alberta Graduate Excellence Scholarship"},{"name":"Graeme Bell and Norma Kay Sullivan-Bell Graduate Scholarship in Biology"},{"name":"University of Calgary PURE Scholarship"},{"name":"Mitacs Globalink"},{"name":"UCalgary Eyes High"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The intestinal roundworm Heligmosomoides bakeri establishes chronic infections in susceptible C57Bl\/6 mice, yet repeated (\u2018trickle\u2019) infections confer immunity and promote worm clearance. We previously linked this acquired immunity to enhanced intestinal granuloma formation. Here, we focused on effector molecules (antibodies) and cells (eosinophils and macrophages) known to immobilize and damage developing parasites.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods and Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We used flow cytometry and immunofluorescence to show that granulomas in trickle-infected female mice contain elevated levels of IgG1, SiglecF+ eosinophils and CD206+ macrophages compared to bolus-infected animals, while IgG2c, IgA, and IgE were undetectable and levels of Ly6G+ neutrophils or NK1.1+ NK cells were unchanged. To mimic natural complexity, we introduced a mixed immune environment via prior Toxoplasma gondii infection which induces interferon-\u03b3 production in the small intestine. Co-infected mice exhibited fewer and smaller granulomas, which lacked IgG1, SiglecF+ eosinophils, and CD206+ macrophages, correlating with higher worm burdens.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Together, these findings highlight the importance of local immune responses to tissue-invading worms and help explain why helminth elimination is frequently more difficult in the complex immune environments found in field settings compared with laboratory conditions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/discim\/kyag004","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T12:44:19Z","timestamp":1772109859000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Immunity to helminths in complex environments: co-infection disrupts effective granuloma formation and parasite 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