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In Nigeria, however, monitoring and risk assessment data for EOCs such as Methylparaben (MeP), Ethylparaben (EtP), Propylparaben (PrP), Butylparaben (BuP), and antibiotics like ampicillin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin (CIP), and metronidazole (MET) are scarce, especially in rural areas. This study quantified EOCs and metals in groundwater from two rural Nigerian communities using high-performance liquid chromatography-UV and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, with validation through recovery (99.6%\u2013101%) and linearity (R2&amp;gt;0.999). Health risks were assessed via target hazard quotient (THQ), target carcinogenic risk (TCR), and risk quotient (RQH). The groundwater samples followed the decreasing order: Ca\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Mg\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Na\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009K\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Co\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Al\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Fe\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Cr\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Mn\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Zn\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Cd\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Ni\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Pb\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009B\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Cu\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009Se for metals and MET\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009CIP\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009BuP\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009MeP\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009PrP\u2009&amp;gt;\u2009EtP for EOCs. Groundwater EOC concentrations were as high as 7,846 (MET), 1,137 (CIP), 342 (MeP), 295 (EtP), 299 (PrP), and 400\u2009\u03bcg\u00a0L\u22121 (BuP) while Fe, Zn, Al, Cr, Ni, and Pb in all groundwater samples investigated were higher than the permissible limit recommended by the World Health Organization. The human risk assessment revealed both noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic hazards from Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb, with Cr contributing approximately 90% of the cumulative THQ and TCR. Additionally, CIP exhibited high RQH (\u2009&amp;gt;\u20091) across all age groups, ranging from 1.142 to 49.174. Findings from this study indicate that groundwater consumption in these communities poses significant health risks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/etojnl\/vgaf179","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]],"date-time":"2025-07-17T18:50:46Z","timestamp":1752778246000},"page":"3336-3348","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Occurrence and exposure assessment of antibiotics, parabens, and potentially toxic elements in groundwater sources from two rural communities in Nigeria"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"44","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-1565-4321","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oluwakemi A","family":"Akintobi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Sciences, Lead City University , Ibadan,","place":["Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adesola O","family":"Adedeji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Sciences, Lead City University , Ibadan,","place":["Nigeria"]},{"name":"Institute for Advanced Medical Research and Training (IAMRAT), College of Medicine, UCH , Ibadan,","place":["Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aemere","family":"Ogunlaja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"African Centre of Excellence for Water and Environmental Research (ACEWATER), Redeemer\u2019s University , Ede,","place":["Nigeria"]},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Redeemer\u2019s University , Ede,","place":["Nigeria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olusola A","family":"Ladokun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Sciences, Lead City University , Ibadan,","place":["Nigeria"]},{"name":"Nigerian Institute of Medical Research (NIMR) , 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