{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,5]],"date-time":"2026-11-05T03:26:21Z","timestamp":1793849181695,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791504000000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":1,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Nitrosamines are among the most concerning nitrogenous disinfection by-products in drinking water because of their high carcinogenic potency and frequent occurrence, particularly in chloraminated systems. However, current risk assessments are predominantly compound-specific and often rely on N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) as a surrogate, limiting the interpretation of multi-compound exposure scenarios. In this study, a toxicity-weighted multi-criteria decision-making framework based on the fuzzy analytic hierarchy process was developed to prioritize nine commonly reported nitrosamines: NDMA, N-nitrosodiethylamine, N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine (NDPA), N-nitrosodibutylamine, N-nitrosomethylethylamine (NMEA), N-nitrosopyrrolidine, N-nitrosopiperidine (NPIP), N-nitrosomorpholine (NMOR), and N-nitrosodiphenylamine (NDPhA). The framework initially considered toxicological properties, exposure indicators, environmental prevalence, evidence availability, data reliability, and practical management considerations. Following fuzzy weighting, the final aggregation was driven by oral slope factor, mean concentration, chronic daily intake (CDI), and toxicity-data reliability. To account for dataset heterogeneity, three contexts were evaluated separately: Formation potential (FP), distribution network, and treatment plant effluent. N-nitrosodiethylamine ranked first in all three contexts, primarily because of its high carcinogenic potency. N-nitrosodimethylamine ranked second in the FP and treatment-plant-effluent contexts but third in the distribution-network context, where NDPA ranked second. The high priority of NDMA reflected its combined contributions from carcinogenic potency, concentration, and CDI, whereas the priority of NDPA was largely driven by its comparatively high CDI. Mid-ranked compounds showed context-dependent variation: NPIP and NMOR received relatively higher priorities in the treatment-plant-effluent and FP contexts, while NMEA ranked higher in the distribution-network context. Across all three contexts, the lowest rank was consistently assigned to NDPhA. Overall, the findings demonstrate that nitrosamine prioritization requires the joint consideration of toxicity and exposure and that the proposed framework provides a transparent and transferable tool for risk-informed monitoring and management in drinking-water systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/etojnl\/vgag268","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T03:14:23Z","timestamp":1791515663000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Toxicity-weighted multi-criteria decision-making for the prioritization of nitrosamines in drinking water using a fuzzy aggregation framework"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6085-1585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cihan","family":"\u00d6zg\u00fcr","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sutculer Prof. Dr. Hasan Gurbuz Vocational School, Department of Property Protection and Safety, Isparta University of Applied Sciences, Isparta, T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2016.04.013","article-title":"Occurrence of nitrosamines and their precursors in drinking water systems around mainland China","volume":"98","author":"Bei","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1016\/0377-2217(95)00300-2(95)00300-2","article-title":"Applications of the extent analysis method on fuzzy AHP","volume":"95","author":"Chang","year":"1996","journal-title":"European Journal of Operational Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2395","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2011.823","article-title":"Correlations between surrogate nitrogenous organic precursors and C-, N-DBP formation","volume":"64","author":"Chang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Science and Technology"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2017.11.016","article-title":"Impact of pre-oxidation on nitrosamine formation from a source to drinking water: A perspective on cancer risk assessment","volume":"113","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Process Safety and Environmental Protection"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2016.11.109","article-title":"Comparison of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with electron ionization for determination of N-nitrosamines in environmental water","volume":"168","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.2166\/aqua.2007.090","article-title":"Fuzzy risk-based decision-making approach for selection of drinking water disinfectants","volume":"56","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2010.02.004","article-title":"Innovative method for prioritizing emerging disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water on the basis of their potential impact on public health","volume":"44","author":"Hebert","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2024.121537","article-title":"N-nitrosamines in electroplating and printing\/dyeing industrial wastewater treatment plants: Removal efficiency, environmental emission, and the influence on drinking water","volume":"255","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Water Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B9","volume-title":"Some N-nitroso compounds. IARC monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans","author":"International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)","year":"1978"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B10","volume-title":"Some aromatic amines, anthraquinones and nitroso compounds, and \u0131norganic fluorides used in drinking-water and dental preparations. IARC monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans","author":"International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)","year":"1982"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B11","volume-title":"Overall evaluations of carcinogenicity: An updating of IARC monographs, IARC Monographs Supplement 7","author":"International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)","year":"1987"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2012.05.039","article-title":"Occurrence of aromatic amines and N-nitrosamines in the different steps of a drinking water treatment plant","volume":"46","author":"Jurado-Sanchez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.2166\/ws.2014.095","article-title":"N-nitrosamines, emerging disinfection by-products of health concern: An overview of occurrence, mechanisms of formation, control and analysis in water","volume":"15","author":"Kadmi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Supply"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2013.04.050","article-title":"Formation, precursors, control, and occurrence of nitrosamines in drinking water: A review","volume":"47","author":"Krasner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11792","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-015-4475-x","article-title":"Variation of levels and distribution of N-nitrosamines in different seasons in drinking waters of East China","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research \u0130nternational"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.7b05440","article-title":"Drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and human health effects: Multidisciplinary challenges and opportunities","volume":"52","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environmental Science & Technology"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.165496","article-title":"Assess the formation of disinfection by-products from pyrogenic dissolved organic matter (pyDOM): Impact of wildfire on the water quality of forest watershed","volume":"898","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Science of the Total Environment"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B18","first-page":"19","article-title":"Carcinogenicity in rats of nitrosomethylethylamines labeled with deuterium in several positions","volume":"40","author":"Lijinsky","year":"1980","journal-title":"Cancer Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3835(83)90156-86883308","article-title":"Carcinogenesis in Fischer rats by nitrosodipropylamine, nitrosodibutylamine and nitrosobis(2-oxopropyl)amine given by gavage","volume":"19","author":"Lijinsky","year":"1983","journal-title":"Cancer Letters"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B20","first-page":"2089","article-title":"Dose-response study with N-nitrosomorpholine in drinking water of F-344 rats","volume":"48","author":"Lijinsky","year":"1988","journal-title":"Cancer Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E184","DOI":"10.5942\/jawwa.2017.109.0036","article-title":"Formation of N-nitrosamines in drinking water sources: Case studies from Western Australia","volume":"109","author":"Linge","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal-American Water Works Association"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.139695","article-title":"Spatial, temporal variability and carcinogenic health risk assessment of nitrosamines in a drinking water system in China","volume":"736","author":"Luo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science of the Total Environment"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.08.023","article-title":"Occurrences of nitrosamines in chlorinated and chloraminated drinking water in three representative cities, China","volume":"437","author":"Luo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science of the Total Environment"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.146982","article-title":"Occurrence and fate of N-nitrosamines in three full-scale drinking water treatment systems with different treatment trains","volume":"783","author":"Maqbool","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science of the Total Environment"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1110(94)90002-7","article-title":"The genetic toxicology of N-nitrosodiphenylamine","volume":"317","author":"McGregor","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mutation Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.2166\/wqrj.2025.087","article-title":"Research progress on the toxicity mechanisms and health risks of N-nitrosamine disinfection by-products in drinking water","volume":"60","author":"Meng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Water Quality Research Journal"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2018.09.054","article-title":"Prioritization of unregulated disinfection by-products in drinking water distribution systems for human health risk mitigation: A critical review","volume":"147","author":"Mian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Water Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B28","first-page":"6415","article-title":"Effects on 4080 rats of chronic ingestion of N-nitrosodiethylamine or N-nitrosodimethylamine: a detailed dose-response study","volume":"51","author":"Peto","year":"1991","journal-title":"Cancer Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00285322","article-title":"Carcinogenicity of N-nitrosopyrrolidine: Dose-response study in rats","volume":"90","author":"Preussmann","year":"1977","journal-title":"Zeitschrift fur Krebsforschung und klinische Onkologie. Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.03.281","article-title":"Formation potential of nine nitrosamines from polyacrylamide during chloramination","volume":"670","author":"Tan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science of the Total Environment"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15792","DOI":"10.3390\/su152215792","article-title":"Fuzzy-based human health risk assessment for shallow groundwater well users in arid regions","volume":"15","author":"Thabit","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B32","first-page":"227","article-title":"Induction of tumors in the liver, urinary bladder, esophagus and forestomach by short-term treatment with different doses of N, N\u2032-dibutylnitrosamine in rats","volume":"78","author":"Tsuda","year":"1987","journal-title":"Japanese Journal of Cancer Research: Gann"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.5942\/jawwa.2017.109.0047","article-title":"The removal of N-nitrosodimethylamine formation potential in drinking water treatment plants","volume":"109","author":"Uzun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal-American Water Works Association"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wroa.2020.100068","article-title":"Controlling disinfection byproducts from treated wastewater using adsorption with granular activated carbon: Impact of pre-ozonation and pre-chlorination","volume":"9","author":"Verdugo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Research X"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-005-0048-y","article-title":"Concordance of thresholds for carcinogenicity of N-nitrosodiethylamine","volume":"80","author":"Waddell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Archives of Toxicology"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1007\/s11783-012-0412-0","article-title":"Detecting N-nitrosamines in water treatment plants and distribution systems in China using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4930","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2011.06.041","article-title":"Occurrence of nine nitrosamines and secondary amines in source water and drinking water: Potential of secondary amines as nitrosamine precursors","volume":"45","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2016.03.035","article-title":"N-nitrosamine formation by monochloramine, free chlorine, and peracetic acid disinfection with presence of amine precursors in drinking water system","volume":"153","author":"West","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1298","DOI":"10.1021\/tx0340495","article-title":"Preferential metabolic activation of N-nitrosopiperidine as compared to its structural homologue N-nitrosopyrrolidine by rat nasal mucosal microsomes","volume":"16","author":"Wong","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chemical Research in Toxicology"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-024-02034-y","article-title":"Industrial effluents and N-nitrosamines in karst aquatic systems: A study on distribution and ecological implications","volume":"46","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environmental Geochemistry and Health"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.111997","article-title":"Metabolomics-based molecular signatures reveal the toxic effect of co-exposure to nitrosamines in drinking water","volume":"204","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environmental Research"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.172498","article-title":"Research progress on the generation of NDMA by typical PPCPs in disinfection treatment of water environment in China: A review","volume":"929","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Science of the Total Environment"},{"key":"2026110421420368000_vgag268-B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7636","DOI":"10.1021\/es061332s","article-title":"Characterization of new nitrosamines in drinking water using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry","volume":"40","author":"Zhao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environmental Science & Technology"}],"container-title":["Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/etc\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/etojnl\/vgag268\/71730846\/vgag268.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/etc\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/etojnl\/vgag268\/71730846\/vgag268.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,5]],"date-time":"2026-11-05T02:42:11Z","timestamp":1793846531000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/etc\/advance-article\/doi\/10.1093\/etojnl\/vgag268\/8888364"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]]},"references-count":43,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/etojnl\/vgag268","relation":{},"ISSN":["0730-7268","1552-8618"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0730-7268","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-8618","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]]},"article-number":"vgag268"}}