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Diptera have undergone multiple sex-chromosome turnovers and expansions while maintaining their general chromosomal content, which makes them an ideal clade to study such transitions. We analyzed more than 100 dipteran whole-genome assemblies and identified 4 new lineages that underwent sex-chromosome turnover (in addition to the 5 previously reported). We find that the majority of turnovers happened in the group Schizophora, which tend to have fewer genes on Muller element F (the chromosome homologous to the ancestral insect X chromosome) than lower dipterans, a factor previously hypothesized to facilitate turnover. Most derived X chromosomes have higher GC content than autosomes, consistent with a high prevalence of male achiasmy in Diptera. In addition, an excess of gene movement out of the X is detected for most of these new X chromosomes, and many of these moved genes have high testis expression in Drosophila, suggesting that out-of-X gene movement contributes to the long-term demasculinization of X chromosomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/evlett\/qrag003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T08:39:39Z","timestamp":1773304779000},"page":"253-268","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Causes and consequences of sex-chromosome turnovers in Diptera"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1253-6297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorena","family":"Layana","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Technology Austria , Klosterneuburg 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