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The family Dendrobatidae is the prime example of aposematism in amphibians but with pronounced intraspecific variation in some species, particularly in the genus Oophaga. We herein compare the skin spectral reflectance, pigment composition, and gene expression of individuals with aposematic (red) and cryptic (green) phenotypes of Oophaga granulifera from Costa Rica. The accumulation of ketocarotenoids, xanthophylls, and \u03b2-carotene in the skin is responsible for the red phenotype. Differentially expressed pigmentation genes, particularly some in the carotenoid metabolism pathway, are strongly associated with the distinction between red and green skin phenotypes. Among these the bco1 gene represents a strong candidate for additional enzymatic studies. We found no clear candidate ketolase gene, but the ketolation enhancer ttc39b was upregulated in the liver of red O. granulifera. Along with the carotenoid metabolism genes, red frogs upregulate the metabolism of amino acids, lipids, and the mitochondrial energy production, markedly in the liver but also in the skin. This suggest a close association between increased ketocarotenoid accumulation and a higher metabolic rate in the red frogs, which is congruent with macroevolutionary patterns in the family and behavioral observations in this species.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/evolut\/qpag160","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T11:47:46Z","timestamp":1789040866000},"page":"2455-2468","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Transcriptomic signatures of carotenoid-based color polytypism in\n                    <i>Oophaga granulifera<\/i>\n                    (Anura: Dendrobatidae)"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"80","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1936-793X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ariel","family":"Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Zoology, Stiftung Tier\u00e4rztliche Hochschule Hannover , Hannover 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