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Among them, anteaters and pangolins exhibit the most extreme convergent phenotypes with complete tooth loss, elongated skulls, protruding tongues, and hypertrophied salivary glands producing large amounts of saliva. However, comparative genomic analyses have shown that anteaters and pangolins differ in their chitinase acidic gene (CHIA) repertoires, which potentially degrade the chitinous exoskeletons of ingested ants and termites. While the southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) harbors four functional CHIA paralogs (CHIA1-4), Asian pangolins (Manis spp.) have only one functional paralog (CHIA5). Here, we performed a comparative transcriptomic analysis of salivary glands in 33 placental species, including 16 novel transcriptomes from ant-eating species and close relatives. Our results suggest that salivary glands play an important role in adaptation to an insect-based diet, as expression of different CHIA paralogs is observed in insectivorous species. Furthermore, convergently evolved pangolins and anteaters express different chitinases in their digestive tracts. In the Malayan pangolin, CHIA5 is overexpressed in all major digestive organs, whereas in the southern tamandua, all four functional paralogs are expressed, at very high levels for CHIA1 and CHIA2 in the pancreas and for CHIA3 and CHIA4 in the salivary glands, stomach, liver, and pancreas. Overall, our results demonstrate that divergent molecular mechanisms within the chitinase acidic gene family underlie convergent adaptation to the ant-eating diet in pangolins and anteaters. This study highlights the role of historical contingency and molecular tinkering of the chitin digestive enzyme toolkit in this classic example of convergent evolution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evaf002","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,7]],"date-time":"2025-01-07T15:18:23Z","timestamp":1736263103000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Transcriptomic Data Reveal Divergent Paths of Chitinase Evolution Underlying Dietary Convergence in Anteaters and Pangolins"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3885-5410","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"R\u00e9mi","family":"Allio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, CNRS, IRD, Univ. Montpellier , Montpellier ,","place":["France"]},{"name":"CBGP, INRAE, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier SupAgro, Univ. Montpellier , Montpellier ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2693-1797","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sophie","family":"Teullet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, CNRS, IRD, Univ. Montpellier , Montpellier ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0793-3930","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dave","family":"Lutgen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, CNRS, IRD, Univ. Montpellier , Montpellier ,","place":["France"]},{"name":"Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern , Bern ,","place":["Switzerland"]},{"name":"Swiss Ornithological Institute , Sempach ,","place":["Switzerland"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amandine","family":"Magdeleine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, CNRS, IRD, Univ. Montpellier , Montpellier ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rachid","family":"Koual","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, CNRS, IRD, Univ. Montpellier , Montpellier ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8995-3462","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marie-Ka","family":"Tilak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, CNRS, IRD, Univ. Montpellier , Montpellier ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8420-5112","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benoit","family":"de Thoisy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut Pasteur de la Guyane , Cayenne, French Guiana ,","place":["France"]},{"name":"Kwata NGO , Cayenne, French Guiana ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7722-7305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher A","family":"Emerling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, CNRS, IRD, Univ. Montpellier , Montpellier ,","place":["France"]},{"name":"Biology Department, Reedley College , Reedley, CA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3923-8166","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tristan","family":"Lef\u00e9bure","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LEHNA UMR 5023, CNRS, ENTPE, Universit\u00e9 Claude Bernard Lyon 1 , F-69622 Villeurbanne ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6501-6287","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric","family":"Delsuc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISEM, CNRS, IRD, Univ. 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