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There are approximately sixty protein-coding genes individually essential for amino acid synthesis. This is a large mutational target for the accumulation of detrimental mutations. E. coli can rewire biosynthetic pathways in response to mutational damage, but the limits of this capacity are poorly understood. Here, to address evolutionary robustness, we asked whether and how the phenotypes of irreversible mutations causing auxotrophy could be suppressed or bypassed in the absence of horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Spontaneous suppressors could be selected for only ten of fifty-nine mutants tested (detection limit \u223c7 \u00d7 10\u221211). Mechanisms of suppression included regional amplifications, mutations increasing gene or operon expression, mutations relaxing enzyme specificity, and mutations causing biochemical pathway diversions. Overall, the data show that spontaneous suppression of auxotrophy caused by an irreversible mutation is an evolutionary survival mechanism relevant only to a minority of the genes essential for amino acid synthesis. As a consequence, the essential genetic foundations for amino acid prototrophy are expected to be degraded over time by mutations (Muller's ratchet) and metabolic rewiring alone will be insufficient to counteract this effect. This implies that maintaining phenotypes, including prototrophy in E. coli, and potentially other bacterial species, is likely to be reliant on HGT of housekeeping genes to counteract the effects of inevitable mutational inactivation. Accordingly, chromosomal HGT in bacteria may be critical for survival across diverse environmental niches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evag209","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T11:49:53Z","timestamp":1787226593000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Evolutionary Maintenance of Amino Acid Prototrophy in\n                    <i>Escherichia coli<\/i>"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7518-9483","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Otto","family":"Lindahl","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Biomedical Center, Uppsala University , Uppsala S-751 23 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