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In African trypanosomes, antigenic variation involves changes in expressed Variant Surface Glycoproteins (VSGs). Understanding of VSG expression control and change amongst African trypanosomes is most advanced in Trypanosoma brucei. In the important animal trypanosome, Trypanosoma congolense, incomplete genome assembly has held back understanding of the mechanics of antigenic variation. Here, we have used long-read DNA sequencing and Hi-C DNA interaction analysis to provide a telomere-to-telomere assembly of the T. congolense genome. This assembly reveals a genome comprising 12 diploid chromosomes, one tetraploid chromosome, and more than 100 small chromosomes. With this assembly we reveal several features of VSG organization and expression that differ from T. brucei. The majority of the T. congolense VSG archive, estimated at \u223c1,500 genes, localizes to subtelomeres in 12 of the 13 large chromosomes, but these loci are notably smaller than are found in T. brucei. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis suggests expression of VSGs across the T. congolense subtelomeres, which are not separated within the nucleus from non-VSG chromosome regions, suggesting that there is no dedicated VSG expression site. Strikingly, one chromosome contains approximately 40% of the VSG archive and is largely transcriptionally silent, potentially acting as the major reservoir of new VSG variants. Finally, we show that VSG expression can be detected from multiple small chromosomes. In summary, the new genome assembly provides a platform for understanding a potentially unusual operation of VSG expression and switching in T. congolense.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evag213","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]],"date-time":"2026-08-22T11:41:36Z","timestamp":1787398896000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["De Novo Assembly of the\n                    <i>Trypanosoma congolense<\/i>\n                    Genome Reveals an Organization Influenced by Antigenic Variation but Distinct from\n                    <i>Trypanosoma brucei<\/i>"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9140-9746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marija","family":"Krasi\u013c\u0146ikova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Glasgow Centre for Parasitology, University of Glasgow, School of Infection and Immunity , Glasgow G12 8TA ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7792-2749","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jane C","family":"Munday","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Glasgow Centre for Parasitology, University of Glasgow, School of Infection and Immunity , Glasgow G12 8TA ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1504-5212","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dario","family":"Beraldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Glasgow Centre for Parasitology, University of Glasgow, School of Infection and Immunity , Glasgow G12 8TA ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6173-046X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephen D","family":"Larcombe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Edinburgh, Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences , Edinburgh ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1428-0608","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guy R","family":"Oldrieve","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Edinburgh, Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences , Edinburgh ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9353-9472","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Craig","family":"Lapsley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Glasgow Centre for Parasitology, University of Glasgow, School of Infection and Immunity , Glasgow G12 8TA ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8304-9066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liam J","family":"Morrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh , Midlothian ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0309-9184","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keith R","family":"Matthews","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Edinburgh, Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences , Edinburgh ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5739-976X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard","family":"McCulloch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Glasgow Centre for Parasitology, University of Glasgow, School of Infection and Immunity , Glasgow G12 8TA 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