{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T17:10:56Z","timestamp":1793293856834,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,3]],"date-time":"2023-10-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1696291200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1R21AG065654-01A1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R21AG065654-01A1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000049","name":"National Institute on Aging","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U01AG009740"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01AG009740"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000049","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Midlife stressors may be particularly consequential for cognitive performance and disparities in cognitive decline. This study examined Black\u2013White differences in trajectories of cognition among middle-aged adults and the effects of acute and chronic stressors on these trajectories.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Data come from 4,011 cognitively healthy individuals aged 51\u201364 (620 Black and 3,391 White) who participated in the 2006\u20132018 waves of the Health and Retirement Study. Stressors included a count of recent life events and measures of financial strain and everyday discrimination. Global cognition was assessed using a modified version of the Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status. Linear mixed models with random slopes and intercepts assessed change in cognition over time. Race-by-time, race-by-stressor, time-by-stressor, and race-by-stressor-by-time interactions were assessed as were quadratic terms for time and each stressor.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>After adjusting for sociodemographic, health behaviors, and health-related factors, Black respondents had lower initial cognitive performance scores (b = \u22121.75, p &amp;lt; .001) but experienced earlier but slower decline in cognitive performance over time (Black \u00d7 Time2 interaction: b = 0.02, p &amp;lt; .01). Financial strain, discrimination, and recent life events each had distinct associations with cognitive performance but did not influence racial differences in levels of or change in cognition over time.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Middle-aged Black adults have lower initial cognition levels and experience earlier but less accelerated cognitive decline compared to White middle-aged adults. Midlife acute and chronic stressors influence baseline cognition but do so in different ways. Future research should examine the influence of other stressors on racial differences in cognitive decline at other points in the life course.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbad143","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]],"date-time":"2023-09-29T16:58:19Z","timestamp":1696006699000},"page":"2147-2155","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["The Effects of Midlife Acute and Chronic Stressors on Black\u2013White Differences in Cognitive Decline"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"78","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1675-1119","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Uchechi A","family":"Mitchell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Community Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Illinois Chicago , Chicago, Illinois , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4756-495X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjamin A","family":"Shaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Community Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Illinois Chicago , Chicago, Illinois , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1579-6107","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacqueline M","family":"Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, School of Medicine, University of California San Francisco , San Francisco, California , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1681-8267","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lauren L","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0072-9817","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lisa L","family":"Barnes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Sciences and Rush Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Center at Rush Medical College , Chicago, Illinois , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0001","first-page":"425","article-title":"Is daily life more stressful during middle adulthood","volume-title":"How healthy are we","author":"Almeida","year":"2004"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0002","volume-title":"Stress in America: The impact of discrimination","author":"American Psychological Association","year":"2016"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-07797-0_3","article-title":"The stress process: Its origins, evolution, and future","volume-title":"Sociology of mental health: Selected topic from forty years 1970\u20132010","author":"Aneshensel","year":"2014"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0004","first-page":"2321","article-title":"Effects of early-life adversity on cognitive decline in older African Americans and Whites","volume-title":"Neurology","author":"Barnes","year":"2012"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0005","volume-title":"Working paper: Inequality in preschool quality? Community-level disparities in access to high-quality learning environments","author":"Bassok","year":"2015"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0006","first-page":"699049","article-title":"Poverty, racism, and the public health crisis in America","volume-title":"Frontiers in Public Health","author":"Beech","year":"2021"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0007","first-page":"111","article-title":"The telephone interview for cognitive status","volume-title":"Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol","author":"Brandt","year":"1988"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0008","first-page":"689462","article-title":"Abandon \u201crace.\u201d Focus on racism","volume-title":"Frontiers in Public Health","author":"Braveman","year":"2021"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0009","first-page":"650","article-title":"Disentangling the stress process: Race\/ethnic differences in the exposure and appraisal of chronic stressors among older adults","volume-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences","author":"Brown","year":"2020"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0010","first-page":"548","article-title":"The association between financial hardship and amygdala and hippocampal volumes: Results from the PATH through life project","volume-title":"Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience","author":"Butterworth","year":"2012"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0011","first-page":"169","article-title":"Black\u2013White \u00admental status trajectories: What ages do differences emerge","volume-title":"SSM\u2014Population Health","author":"Byrd","year":"2018"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0012","first-page":"512","article-title":"A longitudinal analysis of the influence of race on cognitive performance","volume-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences","author":"Castora-Binkley","year":"2015"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0013","first-page":"357","article-title":"Racial disparities in cognitive function among middle-aged and older adults: The roles of cumulative stress exposures across the life course","volume-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences","author":"Chen","year":"2022"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0014","first-page":"i162","article-title":"Assessment of cognition using surveys and neuropsychological assessment: The Health and Retirement Study and the Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study","volume-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences","author":"Crimmins","year":"2011"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0015","first-page":"355","article-title":"Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research","volume-title":"Psychological Bulletin","author":"Dickerson","year":"2004"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0016","first-page":"146","article-title":"More than a feeling: A unified view of stress measurement for population science","volume-title":"Frontiers in neuroendocrinology","author":"Epel","year":"2018"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4135\/9781483345239","volume-title":"Understanding everyday racism: An interdisciplinary theory","author":"Essed","year":"1991"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0018","first-page":"333","article-title":"Aging and cumulative inequality: How does inequality get under the skin","volume-title":"Gerontologist","author":"Ferraro","year":"2009"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0019","first-page":"265","article-title":"Age, cohort and perceived age discrimination: Using the life course to assess self-reported age discrimination","volume-title":"Social Forces","author":"Gee","year":"2007"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0020","first-page":"223","article-title":"Lifecourse social conditions and racial and ethnic patterns of cognitive aging","volume-title":"Neuropsychology Review","author":"Glymour","year":"2008"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0021","first-page":"1657","article-title":"Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia","volume-title":"Neurology","author":"Hall","year":"2007"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0022","first-page":"1870","article-title":"The importance of improving educational attainment for dementia prevalence trends from 2000 to 2014, among older non-Hispanic Black and White Americans","volume-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences","author":"Hayward","year":"2021"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0023","first-page":"253","article-title":"Vigilance in the discrimination-stress model for Black Americans","volume-title":"Psychology and Health","author":"Himmelstein","year":"2015"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.2307\/2676349","article-title":"The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States","volume":"40","author":"Kessler","year":"1999","journal-title":"Journal of Health and Social Behavior"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0025","first-page":"55","article-title":"Do racial differences in coping resources explain the Black\u2013White paradox in mental health? A test of multiple mechanisms","volume-title":"Journal of Health and Social Behavior","author":"Louie","year":"2022"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0026","first-page":"773","article-title":"The effects of lifetime trauma exposure on cognitive functioning in midlife","volume-title":"Journal of Traumatic Stress","author":"Lynch","year":"2020"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0027","first-page":"341","article-title":"Reading level attenuates differences in neuropsychological test performance between African American and White elders","volume-title":"Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society","author":"Manly","year":"2002"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0028","first-page":"778","article-title":"Ethnic differences in cognitive function over time","volume-title":"Annals of Epidemiology","author":"Masel","year":"2009"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0029","first-page":"216","article-title":"Inequalities in dementia incidence between six racial and ethnic groups over 14 years","volume-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s and Dementia","author":"Mayeda","year":"2016"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0030","first-page":"205","article-title":"Stress and cognitive function","volume-title":"Current Opinion in Neurobiology","author":"McEwen","year":"1995"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0031","first-page":"e65","article-title":"Perceived discrimination, nativity, and cognitive performance in a multiethnic study of older adults: Findings from the Kaiser Healthy Aging and Diverse Life Experiences Study","volume-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences","author":"Meza","year":"2022"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0032","first-page":"342","article-title":"The long arm of oppression: How structural stigma against marginalized communities perpetuates within-group health disparities","volume-title":"Health Education & Behavior","author":"Mitchell","year":"2021"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0033","first-page":"2148","article-title":"Effects of stress exposure versus appraisal on episodic memory trajectories: Evidence for risk and resilience among Black older adults","volume-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences","author":"Morris","year":"2021"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0034","first-page":"1008","article-title":"Stressful life events and cognitive decline: Sex differences in the Baltimore Epidemiologic Catchment Area Follow-Up Study","volume-title":"International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry","author":"Munro","year":"2019"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0035","first-page":"P216","article-title":"Age differences in reactivity to daily stressors: The role of personal control","volume-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences","author":"Neupert","year":"2007"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0036","first-page":"205","article-title":"Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives","volume-title":"Journal of Health and Social Behavior","author":"Pearlin","year":"2005"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0037","first-page":"235","article-title":"Properties of the telephone interview for cognitive status: Application in epidemiological and longitudinal Studies","volume-title":"Neuropsychology","author":"Plassam","year":"1994"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0038","first-page":"275","article-title":"Trends in relative incidence and prevalence of dementia across non-Hispanic black and white individuals in the United States, 2000\u20132016","volume-title":"JAMA Neurology","author":"Power","year":"2021"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0039","first-page":"143","article-title":"Social status and biological dysregulation: The \u201cstatus syndrome\u201d and allostatic load","volume-title":"Social Science & Medicine (1982)","author":"Seeman","year":"2014"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0040","first-page":"557","article-title":"The role of early-life educational quality and literacy in explaining racial disparities in cognition in late life","volume-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences","author":"Sisco","year":"2015"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0041","first-page":"52","article-title":"Reported exposure and emotional reactivity to daily stressors: The roles of adult age and global perceived stress","volume-title":"Psychology and Aging","author":"Stawski","year":"2008"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0042","first-page":"25","article-title":"Perceived stress and cognitive decline in different cognitive domains in a cohort of older African Americans","volume-title":"The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry","author":"Turner","year":"2017"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0043","first-page":"1382","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic differences in trajectories of cognitive function in older adults: Role of education, smoking, and physical activity","volume-title":"Journal of Aging and Health","author":"V\u00e1squez","year":"2016"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0044","first-page":"151","article-title":"Cognitive aging in black and white Americans: Cognition, cognitive decline, and incidence of Alzheimer disease dementia","volume-title":"Epidemiology","author":"Weuve","year":"2018"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0045","first-page":"466","article-title":"Stress and the mental health of populations of color: Advancing our understanding of race-related stressors","volume-title":"Journal of Health and Social Behavior","author":"Williams","year":"2018"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0046","first-page":"335","article-title":"Racial differences in physical and mental health socio-economic status, stress and discrimination","volume-title":"Journal of Health Psychology","author":"Williams","year":"1997"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0047","first-page":"e839","article-title":"Cardiovascular risk factors and accelerated cognitive decline in \u00admidlife: The CARDIA Study","volume-title":"Neurology","author":"Yaffe","year":"2020"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0048","first-page":"149","article-title":"Inflammatory mechanisms underlying the effects of everyday discrimination on age-related memory decline","volume-title":"Brain, Behavior, and Immunity","author":"Zahodne","year":"2019"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0049","first-page":"114789","article-title":"Longitudinal associations between racial discrimination and hippocampal and white matter hyperintensity volumes among older Black adults","volume-title":"Social Science and Medicine","author":"Zahodne","year":"2022"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0050","first-page":"409","article-title":"Psychosocial pathways to racial\/ethnic inequalities in late-life memory trajectories","volume-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences","author":"Zahodne","year":"2019"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0051","first-page":"1","article-title":"Sustained economic hardship and cognitive function: The coronary artery risk development in young adults study","volume-title":"American Journal of Preventive Medicine","author":"Zeki Al Hazzouri","year":"2017"},{"key":"2023120619175366400_CIT0052","first-page":"671","article-title":"Stressful life events and racial disparities in cognition among middle-aged and older adults","volume-title":"Journal of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","author":"Zuelsdorff","year":"2020"}],"container-title":["The Journals of Gerontology: Series B"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/psychsocgerontology\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/geronb\/gbad143\/52600755\/gbad143.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/psychsocgerontology\/article-pdf\/78\/12\/2147\/54035356\/gbad143.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/psychsocgerontology\/article-pdf\/78\/12\/2147\/54035356\/gbad143.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,7]],"date-time":"2023-12-07T00:39:23Z","timestamp":1701909563000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/psychsocgerontology\/article\/78\/12\/2147\/7288448"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Jessica","family":"Kelley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,3]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,6]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/geronb\/gbad143","relation":{},"ISSN":["1079-5014","1758-5368"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1079-5014","type":"print"},{"value":"1758-5368","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,3]]}}}