{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T04:44:06Z","timestamp":1791348246064,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765843200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of St Andrews Global Office and Emory University Halle Institute for Global Research Collaborative"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000049","name":"National Institute on Aging","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AG074019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AG074019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000049","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Max Planck\u2013University of Helsinki Center"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004012","name":"Jane and Aatos Erkko Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004012","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Max Planck Society, Faculty of Social Sciences"},{"name":"University of Helsinki, and Cities of Helsinki, Vantaa"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"NIH","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Older adults are at high risk of the negative health impacts of social isolation and loneliness. One of those possible negative health impacts is Alzheimer\u2019s disease, a leading cause of death for adults in the United States and many high-income countries. Taking a life course perspective, we explore whether there is a direct causal effect of social isolation on later-life trajectories of cognitive function, the extent to which any effect of social isolation on cognitive impairment operates indirectly through loneliness, who may be most vulnerable, and the potential efficacy of a statistical intervention for those living alone.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We use a counterfactual approach, the g-formula, with the U.S. Health and Retirement Study, analyzing data from 30,421 individuals with 137,653 observations across 2004\u20132018.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We find a consistent pattern of social isolation having a detrimental direct causal effect on cognitive function, with only 6% of this effect operating through loneliness. Reducing social isolation has a protective effect on cognitive function for all subpopulations regardless of gender, race\/ethnicity, and educational level, with only minor differences among social categories. Our statistical intervention shows that targeting social isolation in those living alone may be one viable public health strategy for protecting against cognitive decline.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Our results suggest that addressing social isolation\u2014and, by extension, its effects on health\u2014requires both a broad understanding of its heterogeneous impacts on the general population and a nuanced approach to targeting public health interventions where they can be most effective.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbaf254","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,11]],"date-time":"2025-12-11T13:05:10Z","timestamp":1765458310000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Disentangling social isolation, loneliness, and later-life cognitive function for older adults in the United States: evidence from causal inference modeling"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"81","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1343-3879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo Mhairi","family":"Hale","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography and Sustainable Development, University of St Andrews , St Andrews,","place":["Scotland"]},{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research , Rostock,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8789-7011","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angelo","family":"Lorenti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research , Rostock,","place":["Germany"]},{"name":"Max Planck-University of Helsinki Center for Social Inequalities in Population Health , Rostock,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2354-1526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Solveig A","family":"Cunningham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University , Atlanta, Georgia,","place":["United States"]},{"name":"Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute , den Haag,","place":["The Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3708","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.13809","article-title":"2024 Alzheimer\u2019s disease facts and figures","volume":"20","author":"Alzheimer\u2019s Association","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s & Dementia"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2023.116163","article-title":"Risk factors for loneliness: A literature review","volume":"334","author":"Barjakov\u00e1","year":"2023","journal-title":"Social Science & Medicine (1982)"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a112674","article-title":"Social networks, host resistance, and mortality: A nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents","volume":"109","author":"Berkman","year":"1979","journal-title":"American Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1136\/jech-2020-215539","article-title":"Relationship between loneliness, social isolation and modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular disease: A latent class analysis","volume":"75","author":"Bu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000000217","article-title":"Evolving methods for inference in the presence of healthy worker survivor bias","volume":"26","author":"Buckley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B6","author":"Center for Economic and Social Research","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2022.115448","article-title":"A life course approach to understanding stress exposures and cognitive function among middle-aged and older adults","volume":"314","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Social Science & Medicine (1982)"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"i38","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbp037","article-title":"Measuring social isolation among older adults using multiple indicators from the NSHAP study","volume":"64","author":"Cornwell","year":"2009","journal-title":"The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"i162","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbr048","article-title":"Assessment of cognition using surveys and neuropsychological assessment: The Health and Retirement Study and the Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study","volume":"66","author":"Crimmins","year":"2011","journal-title":"The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1997","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glab128","article-title":"Associations of loneliness and social isolation with health span and life span in the U.S. Health and Retirement Study","volume":"76","author":"Crowe","year":"2021","journal-title":"The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gby037","article-title":"The epidemiology of social isolation: National Health and Aging Trends Study","volume":"75","author":"Cudjoe","year":"2020","journal-title":"The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2021.1876638","article-title":"A systematic review of longitudinal risk factors for loneliness in older adults","volume":"26","author":"Dahlberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aging & Mental Health"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2012.11.007","article-title":"How does race get \u201cunder the skin\u201d? Inflammation, weathering, and metabolic problems in late life","volume":"77","author":"Das","year":"2013","journal-title":"Social Science & Medicine (1982)"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.53.1.119","article-title":"Developing and testing a model of loneliness","volume":"53","author":"de Jong-Gierveld","year":"1987","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S119","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-180501","article-title":"Social isolation and cognitive function in later life: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"70","author":"Evans","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: JAD"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2024.2358079","article-title":"Association between loneliness and mild cognitive impairment in older adults: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies","volume":"28","author":"Fan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aging & Mental Health"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2483","DOI":"10.1007\/s00148-023-00956-y","article-title":"Social isolation, health dynamics, and mortality: Evidence across 21 European countries","volume":"36","author":"Fawaz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Population Economics"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2009.02.007","article-title":"Telephone interview for cognitive status: Creating a crosswalk with the Mini-Mental State Exam","volume":"5","author":"Fong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s & Dementia"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbae169","article-title":"Associations between loneliness, epigenetic aging, and multimorbidity through older adulthood","volume":"79","author":"Freilich","year":"2024","journal-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-5573-6-4","article-title":"Identifiability, exchangeability and confounding revisited","volume":"6","author":"Greenland","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epidemiologic Perspectives & Innovations"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003289012-19","volume-title":"Loneliness and social isolation in old age","author":"Hajek","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2125","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-017-0629-4","article-title":"Cognitive disparities: The impact of the great depression and cumulative inequality on later-life cognitive function","volume":"54","author":"Hale","year":"2017","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2021.100855","article-title":"Does postponing retirement affect cognitive function? A counterfactual experiment to disentangle life course risk factors","volume":"15","author":"Hale","year":"2021","journal-title":"SSM - Population Health"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B25","volume-title":"Causal inference","author":"Hern\u00e1n","year":"2020"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-122216-011902","article-title":"Why social relationships are important for physical health: A systems approach to understanding and modifying risk and protection","volume":"69","author":"Holt-Lunstad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691614568352","article-title":"Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review","volume":"10","author":"Holt-Lunstad","year":"2015","journal-title":"Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2023.101459","article-title":"Are loneliness and social isolation equal threats to health and well-being? An outcome-wide longitudinal approach","volume":"23","author":"Hong","year":"2023","journal-title":"SSM\u2014Population Health"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1097\/ede.0000000000000160","article-title":"The parametric g-formula for time-to-event data: Intuition and a worked example","volume":"25","author":"Keil","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbae082","article-title":"Separating the effects of transitions into and out of social isolation and loneliness on cognitive function in later life","volume":"79","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1093\/abm\/kax033","article-title":"Social isolation, loneliness, and health behaviors at older ages: Longitudinal cohort study","volume":"52","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annals of Behavioral Medicine: A Publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2015.04.006","article-title":"Social relationships and risk of dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies","volume":"22","author":"Kuiper","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ageing Research Reviews"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B33","volume-title":"Langa-Weir classification of cognitive function (1995-2020)","author":"Langa","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbw210","article-title":"Recent improvements in cognitive functioning among older U.S. adults: How much does increasing educational attainment explain?","volume":"74","author":"Leggett","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-020-01889-7","article-title":"Understanding loneliness in the twenty-first century: An update on correlates, risk factors, and potential solutions","volume":"55","author":"Lim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.5304","article-title":"Loneliness is associated with risk of cognitive impairment in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe","volume":"35","author":"Luchetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"igad126","DOI":"10.1093\/geroni\/igad126","article-title":"Examining the interrelationships between social isolation and loneliness and their correlates among older British adults before and during the COVID-19 lockdown: Evidence from four British longitudinal studies","volume":"8","author":"Mansfield","year":"2024","journal-title":"Innovation in Aging"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B39","volume-title":"Health and Retirement Study imputation of cognitive functioning measures","author":"McCammon","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.114339","article-title":"Does unemployment lead to greater levels of loneliness? A systematic review","volume":"287","author":"Morrish","year":"2021","journal-title":"Social Science & Medicine (1982)"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyw323","article-title":"An introduction to g methods","volume":"46","author":"Naimi","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17226\/25663","volume-title":"Social isolation and loneliness in older adults","author":"National Academies of Sciences","year":"2020"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B44","first-page":"31","article-title":"Toward a social psychology of loneliness","volume":"3","author":"Perlman","year":"1981","journal-title":"Personal Relationships"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B46","author":"RAND Center for the Study of Aging","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1215\/00703370-9937606","article-title":"Loneliness at older ages in the U.S.: Lonely life expectancy and the role of loneliness in health disparities","volume":"59","author":"Raymo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-071811-145508","article-title":"The race discrimination system","volume":"38","author":"Reskin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annual Review of Sociology"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1016\/0270-0255","article-title":"A new approach to causal inference in mortality studies with a sustained exposure period\u2014Application to control of the healthy worker survivor effect","volume":"7","author":"Robins","year":"1986","journal-title":"Mathematical Modelling"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327752jpa4203_11","article-title":"Developing a measure of loneliness","volume":"42","author":"Russell","year":"1978","journal-title":"Journal of Personality Assessment"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0b013e31827f09cd","article-title":"Social isolation and loneliness: Relationships with cognitive function during 4 years of follow-up in the English longitudinal study of ageing","volume":"75","author":"Shankar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychosomatic Medicine"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B3982665","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1080\/00324728.2023.2174267","article-title":"Cognitive impairment and partnership status in the United States, 1998\u20132016, by sex, race\/ethnicity, and education","volume":"78","author":"Sharma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Population Studies"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B53","volume-title":"Loneliness and health","author":"Solway","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5797","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1219686110","article-title":"Social isolation, loneliness, and all-cause mortality in older men and women","volume":"110","author":"Steptoe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gby114","article-title":"The state of loneliness and social isolation research: Current knowledge and future directions","volume":"23","author":"Taylor","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gby114","article-title":"Race and objective social isolation: Older African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and non-Hispanic Whites","volume":"74","author":"Taylor","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-031021","article-title":"Social isolation: An unequally distributed health hazard","volume":"49","author":"Umberson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Annual Review of Sociology"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1177\/00221465221109634","article-title":"Gender and social isolation across the life course","volume":"63","author":"Umberson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Health and Social Behavior"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B59","author":"University of Michigan","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1515\/jci-2012-0002","article-title":"Causal inference under multiple versions of treatment","volume":"1","author":"VanderWeele","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Causal Inference"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-015-0100-z","article-title":"G-computation demonstration in causal mediation analysis","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"European Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2000","DOI":"10.1002\/SIM.5316","article-title":"The parametric g-formula to estimate the effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on incident AIDS or death","volume":"31","author":"Westreich","year":"2012","journal-title":"Statistics in Medicine"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1757","DOI":"10.1093\/sf\/soy108","article-title":"The civic footprints of labor market participation: Longitudinal evidence from the United States, 2002\u20132015","volume":"97","author":"Wiertz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Social Forces"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2414","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291720001014","article-title":"Social isolation, rather than loneliness, is associated with cognitive decline in older adults: The China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study","volume":"51","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychological Medicine"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-016-1252-2","article-title":"Measures of social isolation","volume":"131","author":"Zavaleta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Social Indicators Research"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146516645925","article-title":"Life course pathways to racial disparities in cognitive impairment among older Americans","volume":"57","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Health and Social Behavior"},{"key":"2026071704565412100_gbaf254-B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1652","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbaa107","article-title":"A new look at cohort trend and underlying mechanisms in cognitive functioning","volume":"76","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences"}],"container-title":["The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/psychsocgerontology\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/geronb\/gbaf254\/65878622\/gbaf254.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/psychsocgerontology\/article-pdf\/81\/3\/gbaf254\/65878622\/gbaf254.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/psychsocgerontology\/article-pdf\/81\/3\/gbaf254\/65878622\/gbaf254.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T08:57:00Z","timestamp":1784278620000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/psychsocgerontology\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/geronb\/gbaf254\/8379737"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Jessica A","family":"Kelley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"(Social Sciences Section)"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/geronb\/gbaf254","relation":{},"ISSN":["1079-5014","1758-5368"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1079-5014","type":"print"},{"value":"1758-5368","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]]},"article-number":"gbaf254"}}