{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T19:47:02Z","timestamp":1782330422719,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":10,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000026","name":"National Institute on Drug Abuse","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["K23DA055695"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K23DA055695"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000026","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Nearly 2 million people are incarcerated in US jails and prisons, where they experience disproportionate burdens of chronic disease, mental illness, substance use disorders, and infectious diseases. Although many receive specialty or acute care in community hospitals, incarceration status is rarely captured in clinical or administrative data, rendering this population largely invisible to quality-improvement efforts, research, and health equity initiatives. Existing identification strategies\u2014including International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes capturing social determinants of health or institution-specific electronic medical record workarounds\u2014are inconsistently used, lack specificity, and offer little reimbursement incentive, resulting in incomplete and nonstandardized data. Here we review current gaps in documenting incarceration within community medical centers and propose policy and infrastructure reforms to improve measurement and accountability, including reclassifying incarceration-related codes as reimbursable comorbid conditions to incentivize documentation, developing consensus guidance from professional societies to standardize practices, pairing data collection with ethical safeguards to mitigate stigma and misuse, and incorporating incarceration status into national administrative datasets to enable population-level research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/haschl\/qxag101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T11:51:11Z","timestamp":1777377071000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Capturing incarceration in the medical record: we cannot manage what we cannot measure"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2865-7464","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justin","family":"Berk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University , Providence, RI 02903 ,","place":["United States"]},{"name":"Center for Health and Justice Transformation, Brown University Health , 167 Point Street, Suite 1A Providence, RI 02903 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-3582-3506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna Maria","family":"South","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hospital Medicine, University of Kentucky College of Medicine , Lexington, KY 40506 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1625-2187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Farah","family":"Acher Kaiksow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin , Madison, WI 53792 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-1008-1413","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lawrence A","family":"Haber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine , Aurora, CO 80045 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"2026062415062373900_qxag101-B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2212149","article-title":"Carceral health care","volume":"392","author":"Brinkley-Rubinstein","year":"2025","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026062415062373900_qxag101-B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-011-1858-7","article-title":"Confined to ignorance: the absence of prisoner information from nationally representative health data sets","volume":"27","author":"Ahalt","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"issue":"11","key":"2026062415062373900_qxag101-B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2019.3881","article-title":"Acute care for patients who are incarcerated: a review","volume":"179","author":"Haber","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"issue":"52","key":"2026062415062373900_qxag101-B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000023818","article-title":"International classification of diseases, tenth revision, clinical modification social determinants of health codes are poorly used in electronic health records","volume":"99","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medicine (Baltimore)"},{"issue":"suppl 2","key":"2026062415062373900_qxag101-B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S157","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0000000000001049","article-title":"Measuring exposure to incarceration using the electronic health record","volume":"57","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med Care"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026062415062373900_qxag101-B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-024-09149-z","article-title":"Talking about incarceration history: engaging patients and healthcare providers in communication","volume":"40","author":"Patil","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"key":"2026062415062373900_qxag101-B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jhm.70297","article-title":"Patient and hospitalization differences in incarcerated versus nonincarcerated men: insights from a 10-year cohort study [published online ahead of print February 26, 2026]","author":"Kaiksow","journal-title":"J Hosp Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026062415062373900_qxag101-B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0285729","article-title":"Suicides in state prisons in the United States: highlighting gaps in data","volume":"18","author":"LeMasters","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026062415062373900_qxag101-B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-024-09136-4","article-title":"Decoding homelessness: Z-codes and the recognition of homelessness as a comorbid condition","volume":"40","author":"Nepal","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"issue":"9","key":"2026062415062373900_qxag101-B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0330361","article-title":"Medical associations' guidance on caring for patients experiencing incarceration in the United 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