{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T23:02:05Z","timestamp":1792018925767,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]],"date-time":"2023-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1690848000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["208013\/Z\/17\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["208013\/Z\/17\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,3]]},"abstract":"Abstract<\/jats:title>\n \n STUDY QUESTION<\/jats:title>\n What are the experiences of single men using egg donation and surrogacy as a route to parenthood?<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n SUMMARY ANSWER<\/jats:title>\n The fathers mainly had a positive relationship with the surrogate and simultaneously exercised agency, and experienced challenges, during the process of surrogacy.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY<\/jats:title>\n Little is known about single men\u2019s experiences of egg donation and surrogacy arrangements. Studies have focused on single men\u2019s decision-making processes about the use of surrogacy and family functioning once these families are formed. Questions remain about how fathers experience and navigate the process of surrogacy as a single man.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION<\/jats:title>\n The study is an international, in-depth qualitative study of fathers who chose to begin a family and parent alone. Data were collected between 2018 and 2021 as part of a larger study of solo fathers with different routes to parenthood. The present study reports on 21 fathers who used surrogacy and egg donation to begin their family. The average age of the fathers was 44\u2009years, the fathers had young children aged 6\u2009years or younger, and lived in countries across Australia, Europe, and North America.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n PARTICIPANTS\/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS<\/jats:title>\n Purposive sampling was used to recruit participants. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted. Interview topics included fathers\u2019 experiences of the process of using egg donation and surrogacy, and navigating the relationship with the surrogate. The audio-recorded interviews lasted around 2 hours and were subsequently transcribed verbatim.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE<\/jats:title>\n Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis and qualitative content analysis. Most of the fathers chose an identifiable egg donor. Regarding the relationship with the surrogate, many fathers had remained in contact with her, but to differing degrees, and they generally reported positive relationships. Thematic analysis led to the identification of three themes relating to the fathers\u2019 experiences of choosing surrogacy as a single man: the ability to make choices; challenges and constraints; and special relationship.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION<\/jats:title>\n Due to the variation between different countries regarding laws on surrogacy, contextual factors may have impacted on the experiences of single fathers, and the sample size was small. However, the research provides new insights into an area with little academic literature.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS<\/jats:title>\n Given the growing trend of single men having children through surrogacy, the findings suggest that this new path to parenthood can be both rewarding and challenging. Single men may benefit from tailored support and counselling to help them navigate the surrogacy journey.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n STUDY FUNDING\/COMPETING INTEREST(S)<\/jats:title>\n This study was funded by the Wellcome Trust (grant number 208013\/Z\/17\/Z). The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER<\/jats:title>\n n\/a<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dead152","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]],"date-time":"2023-08-02T02:30:43Z","timestamp":1690943443000},"page":"1981-1990","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Single fathers\u2019 experiences of using egg donation and surrogacy to start a family"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"38","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6078-3455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C","family":"Jones","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King\u2019s College London , London, UK"},{"name":"Centre for Family Research, University of Cambridge , Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0922-0694","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V","family":"Jadva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UCL Institute for Women\u2019s Health, University College London , London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7215-1607","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S","family":"Zadeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Thomas Coram Research Unit, University College London , London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1623-2693","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S","family":"Golombok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Family Research, University of Cambridge , Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rbms.2018.08.001","article-title":"Being questioned as parents: an interview study with Swedish commissioning parents using transnational surrogacy","volume":"8","author":"Arvidsson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reprod Biomed Soc Online"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B2","first-page":"43","volume-title":"LGBT-Parent Families. Innovations in Research and Implications for Practice","author":"Berkowitz","year":"2020"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2459","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-019-01612-9","article-title":"Incidence of surrogacy in the USA and Israel and implications on women's health: a quantitative comparison","volume":"36","author":"Birenbaum-Carmeli","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Assist Reprod Genet"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2016.08.013","article-title":"Gay father surrogacy families: relationships with surrogates and egg donors and parental disclosure of children's origins","volume":"106","author":"Blake","year":"2016","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B5","first-page":"860","article-title":"Gay fathers\u2019 motivations for and feelings about surrogacy as a path to parenthood","volume":"32","author":"Blake","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2046","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/des112","article-title":"Guidelines for infertility counselling in different countries: is there an emerging trend?","volume":"27","author":"Blyth","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-008-9400-z","article-title":"When Black\u2009+\u2009lesbian\u2009+\u2009woman\u2009\u2260\u2009Black lesbian woman: the methodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative intersectionality research","volume":"59","author":"Bowleg","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.4135\/9781412976633.n15","volume-title":"Handbook of Adoption: Implications for Researchers, Practitioners, and Families","author":"Boyer","year":"2007"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa","article-title":"Using thematic analysis in psychology","volume":"3","author":"Braun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Qual Res Psychol"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1080\/2159676X.2019.1628806","article-title":"Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis","volume":"11","author":"Braun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Qual Res Sport Exerc Health"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B11","volume-title":"Thematic Analysis: A Practical Guide","author":"Braun","year":"2021"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dex245","article-title":"Single fathers by choice using surrogacy: why men decide to have a child as a single parent","volume":"32","author":"Carone","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1007\/s13178-019-00428-7","article-title":"Gay and heterosexual single father families created by surrogacy: father\u2013child relationships, parenting quality, and children\u2019s psychological adjustment","volume":"17","author":"Carone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sex Res Soc Policy"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dex362","article-title":"Surrogacy families headed by gay men: relationships with surrogates and egg donors, fathers' decisions over disclosure and children's views on their surrogacy origins","volume":"33","author":"Carone","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0001155","article-title":"Factors associated with behavioral adjustment among school-age children of gay and heterosexual single fathers through surrogacy","volume":"57","author":"Carone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dev Psychol"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rbmo.2021.05.023","article-title":"Father\u2013child bonding and mental health in gay fathers using cross-border surrogacy during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"43","author":"Carone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Reprod Biomed Online"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1111\/jftr.12069","article-title":"Single-father families: a review of the literature","volume":"7","author":"Coles","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Fam Theory Rev"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1527-2001.1998.tb01370.x","article-title":"It\u2019s all in the family: intersections of gender, race, and nation","volume":"13","author":"Collins","year":"1998","journal-title":"Hypatia"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B19","author":"Department of Health and Social Care","year":"2021"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B20","volume-title":"An Introduction to Qualitative Research","author":"Flick","year":"2014","edition":"5th edn."},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1177\/1049732311420580","article-title":"Feeling their stories: contemplating empathy, insider\/outsider positionings, and enriching qualitative research","volume":"22","author":"Gair","year":"2012","journal-title":"Qual Health Res"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781107295377","volume-title":"Modern Families: Parents and Children in New Family Forms","author":"Golombok","year":"2015"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B23","volume-title":"We Are Family: What Really Matters for Parents and Children","author":"Golombok","year":"2020"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12728","article-title":"Parenting and the adjustment of children born to gay fathers through surrogacy","volume":"89","author":"Golombok","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1037\/fam0000188","article-title":"Single mothers by choice: mother-child relationships and children's psychological adjustment","volume":"30","author":"Golombok","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Fam Psychol"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1177\/1097184X11412940","article-title":"What is \u2018new\u2019 about fatherhood? The social construction of fatherhood in France and the UK","volume":"14","author":"Gregory","year":"2011","journal-title":"Men Masc"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dew065","article-title":"The end of donor anonymity: how genetic testing is likely to drive anonymous gamete donation out of business","volume":"31","author":"Harper","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B28","volume-title":"The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood","author":"Hays","year":"1996"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B2900","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1177\/030857590502900306","article-title":"Lesbian and gay foster care and adoption: A brief UK history","volume":"29","author":"Hicks","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adopt Foster"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-devpsych-070220-122704","article-title":"Impact of new family forms on parenting and child development","volume":"2","author":"Imrie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu Rev Dev Psychol"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rbmo.2014.06.004","article-title":"The long-term experiences of surrogates: relationships and contact with surrogacy families in genetic and gestational surrogacy arrangements","volume":"29","author":"Imrie","year":"2014","journal-title":"Reprod Biomed Online"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2020.03.010","article-title":"Postdelivery adjustment of gestational carriers, intended parents, and their children","volume":"113","author":"Jadva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.3109\/14647270903373867","article-title":"\u201cMom by choice, single by life\u2019s circumstance \u2009\u2026\u2009\u201d: findings from a large scale survey of the experiences of single mothers by choice","volume":"12","author":"Jadva","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum Fertil (Camb)"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3008","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/des273","article-title":"Surrogacy families 10 years on: relationship with the surrogate, decisions over disclosure and children's understanding of their surrogacy origins","volume":"27","author":"Jadva","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1080\/14647273.2017.1315460","article-title":"Why search for a sperm donor online? The experiences of women searching for and contacting sperm donors on the internet","volume":"21","author":"Jadva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum Fertil (Camb)"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2018.11.029","article-title":"Parents' relationship with their surrogate in cross-border and domestic surrogacy arrangements: comparisons by sexual orientation and location","volume":"111","author":"Jadva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2196","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/deg397","article-title":"Surrogacy: the experiences of surrogate mothers","volume":"18","author":"Jadva","year":"2003","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1080\/14647273.2018.1540801","article-title":"Cross-border and domestic surrogacy in the UK context: an exploration of practical and legal decision-making","volume":"24","author":"Jadva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum Fertil (Camb)"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1080\/09589236.2015.1108840","article-title":"Single, straight, wants kids: media framing of single, heterosexual fatherhood via assisted reproduction","volume":"26","author":"Johnson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Gender Stud"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9236","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19159236","article-title":"Solo fathers and mothers: an exploration of well-being, social support and social approval","volume":"19","author":"Jones","year":"2022","journal-title":"IJERPH"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2426","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/deac174","article-title":"\u2018I\u2019m the only mum she knows\u2019: parents\u2019 understanding of, and feelings about, identity-release egg donation","volume":"37","author":"Lysons","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B41","first-page":"365","volume-title":"Qualitative Content Analysis: Theoretical Background and Procedures","author":"Mayring","year":"2015"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022967012774","article-title":"What difference does difference make? Position and privilege in the field","volume":"26","author":"McCorkel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Qual Sociol"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1177\/0192513X13484272","article-title":"The desire for parenthood: gay men choosing to become parents through surrogacy","volume":"34","author":"Murphy","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Fam Issues"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2288-9-52","article-title":"Qualitative description \u2013 the poor cousin of health research?","volume":"9","author":"Neergaard","year":"2009","journal-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1177\/0038026117711645","article-title":"Genetic thinking and everyday living: on family practices and family imaginaries","volume":"65","author":"Nordqvist","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sociol Rev"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B4500","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1136\/jfprhc-2013-100671","article-title":"Gay men\u2018s experiences of surrogacy clinics in India","volume":"41","author":"Riggs","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7946","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19137946","article-title":"Higher levels of postnatal depressive symptomatology, post-traumatic growth, and life satisfaction among gay fathers through surrogacy in comparison to heterosexual fathers: a study in Israel in times of COVID-19","volume":"19","author":"Shenkman","year":"2022","journal-title":"IJERPH"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-78670-4_14","volume-title":"Cross-Cultural Comparisons on Surrogacy and Egg Donation","author":"Teschlade","year":"2018"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11356","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191811356","article-title":"The social experiences of single gay fathers in Israel: an intersectional perspective","volume":"19","author":"Tsfati","year":"2022","journal-title":"IJERPH"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1080\/1464727982000198031","article-title":"Functions and responsibilities of organizations dealing with surrogate motherhood in the UK","volume":"1","author":"van Den Akker","year":"1998","journal-title":"Hum Fertil (Camb)"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1177\/0891243207304973","article-title":"How involved is involved fathering? An exploration of the contemporary culture of fatherhood","volume":"21","author":"Wall","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gender Soc"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dev275","article-title":"Absence or presence? Complexities in the donor narratives of single mothers using sperm donation","volume":"31","author":"Zadeh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1177\/00380385211073238","article-title":"Documenting families: paper-work in family display among planned single father families","volume":"56","author":"Zadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sociology"},{"key":"2023100308124644600_dead152-B53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1177\/1066480714565107","article-title":"The pregnancy experience of gay couples expecting a child through overseas surrogacy","volume":"23","author":"Ziv","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fam J"}],"container-title":["Human Reproduction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/humrep\/article-pdf\/38\/10\/1981\/51740657\/dead152.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/humrep\/article-pdf\/38\/10\/1981\/51740657\/dead152.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,3]],"date-time":"2023-10-03T08:13:21Z","timestamp":1696320801000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/humrep\/article\/38\/10\/1981\/7235060"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,3]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/humrep\/dead152","relation":{},"ISSN":["0268-1161","1460-2350"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0268-1161","type":"print"},{"value":"1460-2350","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]}}}