{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T13:31:32Z","timestamp":1793712692031,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":162,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,25]],"date-time":"2020-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1582588800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>BACKGROUND<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Adenomyosis is a benign uterine disorder where endometrial glands and stroma are pathologically demonstrated within the uterine myometrium. The pathogenesis involves sex steroid hormone abnormalities, inflammation, fibrosis and neuroangiogenesis, even though the proposed mechanisms are not fully understood. For many years, adenomyosis has been considered a histopathological diagnosis made after hysterectomy, classically performed in perimenopausal women with abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) or pelvic pain. Until recently, adenomyosis was a clinically neglected condition. Nowadays, adenomyosis may also be diagnosed by non-invasive techniques, because of imaging advancements. Thus, a new epidemiological scenario has developed with an increasing number of women of reproductive age with ultrasound (US) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) diagnosis of adenomyosis. This condition is associated with a wide variety of symptoms (pelvic pain, AUB and\/or infertility), but it is also recognised that some women are asymptomatic. Furthermore, adenomyosis often coexists with other gynecological comorbidities, such as endometriosis and uterine fibroids, and the diagnostic criteria are still not universally agreed. Therefore, the diagnostic process for adenomyosis is challenging.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We present a comprehensive review on the diagnostic criteria of adenomyosis, including clinical signs and symptoms, ultrasound and MRI features and histopathological aspects of adenomyotic lesions. We also briefly summarise the relevant theories on adenomyosis pathogenesis, in order to provide the pathophysiological background to understand the different phenotypes and clinical presentation. The review highlights the controversies of multiple existing criteria, summarising all of the available evidences on adenomyosis diagnosis. The review aims also to underline the future perspective for diagnosis, stressing the importance of an integrated clinical and imaging approach, in order to identify this gynecological disease, so often underdiagnosed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>SEARCH METHODS<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>PubMed and Google Scholar were searched for all original and review articles related to diagnosis of adenomyosis published in English until October 2018.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>OUTCOMES<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The challenge in diagnosing adenomyosis starts with the controversies in the available pathogenic theories. The difficulties in understanding the way the disease arises and progresses have an impact also on the specific diagnostic criteria to use for a correct identification. Currently, the diagnosis of adenomyosis may be performed by non-invasive methods and the clinical signs and symptoms, despite their heterogeneity and poor specificity, may guide the clinician for a suspicion of the disease. Imaging techniques, including 2D and 3D US as well as MRI, allow the proper identification of the different phenotypes of adenomyosis (diffuse and\/or focal). From a histological point of view, if the diagnosis of diffuse adenomyosis is straightforward, in more limited disease, the diagnosis has poor inter-observer reproducibility, leading to extreme variations in the prevalence of disease. Therefore, an integrated non-invasive diagnostic approach, considering risk factors profile, clinical symptoms, clinical examination and imaging, is proposed to adequately identify and characterise adenomyosis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>WIDER IMPLICATIONS<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The development of the diagnostic tools allows the physicians to make an accurate diagnosis of adenomyosis by means of non-invasive techniques, representing a major breakthrough, in the light of the clinical consequences of this disease. Furthermore, this technological improvement will open a new epidemiological scenario, identifying different groups of women, with a dissimilar clinical and\/or imaging phenotypes of adenomyosis, and this should be object of future research.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmz049","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,20]],"date-time":"2020-02-20T15:14:56Z","timestamp":1582211696000},"page":"392-411","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":390,"title":["Diagnosing adenomyosis: an integrated clinical and imaging approach"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2578-3163","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles","family":"Chapron","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology Obstetrics II and Reproductive Medicine, Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, Facult\u00e9 de M\u00e9decine, Assistance Publique \u2013 H\u00f4pitaux de Paris (AP-HP), H\u00f4pital Universitaire Paris Centre (HUPC), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Cochin, Paris, France"},{"name":"Department \u201cDevelopment, Reproduction and Cancer\u201d, Institut Cochin, INSERM U1016 (Doctor Vaiman), Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, Paris, France"},{"name":"Department \u201cDevelopment, Reproduction and Cancer\u201d, Institut Cochin, INSERM U1016 (Professor Batteux), Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Vannuccini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology Obstetrics II and Reproductive Medicine, Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, Facult\u00e9 de M\u00e9decine, Assistance Publique \u2013 H\u00f4pitaux de Paris (AP-HP), H\u00f4pital Universitaire Paris Centre (HUPC), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Cochin, Paris, France"},{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Careggi University Hospital, Largo Brambilla 3, 50134, Florence, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Pharmacology and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), University of Florence, Florence, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, University of Siena, viale Mario Bracci, 16, 53100, Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pietro","family":"Santulli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology Obstetrics II and Reproductive Medicine, Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, Facult\u00e9 de M\u00e9decine, Assistance Publique \u2013 H\u00f4pitaux de Paris (AP-HP), H\u00f4pital Universitaire Paris Centre (HUPC), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Cochin, Paris, France"},{"name":"Department \u201cDevelopment, Reproduction and Cancer\u201d, Institut Cochin, INSERM U1016 (Doctor Vaiman), Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, Paris, France"},{"name":"Department \u201cDevelopment, Reproduction and Cancer\u201d, Institut Cochin, INSERM U1016 (Professor Batteux), Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mauricio S","family":"Abr\u00e3o","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Endometriosis Section, Gynecologic Division, Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil"},{"name":"Gynecologic Division, BP-A Beneficencia Portuguesa de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Carmona","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecology, Institut Clinic of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Neonatology, Hospital Clinic, Institut d'Investigacions Biom\u00e8diques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ian S","family":"Fraser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Women\u2019s and Children\u2019s Health, Royal Hospital for Women, University of New South Wales, Randwick, NSW, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephan","family":"Gordts","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Leuven Institute for Fertility & Embryology, Schipvaartstraat 4, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sun-Wei","family":"Guo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Shanghai Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China"},{"name":"Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine-Related Diseases, Shanghai, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pierre-Alexandre","family":"Just","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facult\u00e9 de M\u00e9decine, H\u00f4pitaux Universitaires Paris Centre (AP-HP), H\u00f4pital Cochin, Service de pathologie, CAncer Research for PErsonalized Medicine (CARPEM), Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cit\u00e9, Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Christophe","family":"No\u00ebl","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Erasme University Hospital\/Curepath, Free University of Brussels (ULB), Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Pistofidis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gynecologic Endoscopy, Lefkos Stavros Hospital, Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thierry","family":"Van den Bosch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospitals KU Leuven, Leuven, 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