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We show how this decomposition along the robust\u2013adaptive axis provides testable hypotheses to classify behavioral outcomes to perturbations. With a focus on studies in non-human animals, we contextualize recent findings along the robust\u2013adaptive axis by emphasizing two broad classes of behaviors: (1) compensation to appendage loss and (2) image stabilization and fixation. Next, we attempt to map robust and adaptive control of locomotion across some animal groups and existing bio-inspired robots. Finally, we highlight exciting future directions and interdisciplinary collaborations that are needed to unravel principles of robust and adaptive locomotion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/icae121","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]],"date-time":"2024-08-01T15:23:34Z","timestamp":1722525814000},"page":"1390-1407","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Moving in an Uncertain World: Robust and Adaptive Control of Locomotion from Organisms to Machine Intelligence"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"64","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3292-6911","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean-Michel","family":"Mongeau","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University , University Park, 16802 PA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-9512-5377","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University , 3400 North Charles Street, 21218 MD ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1919-4303","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ignacio","family":"Escalante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois, Chicago , 845\u00a0W Taylor St, 60607 IL ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2502-3770","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noah","family":"Cowan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University , 3400 North Charles Street, 21218 MD ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6958-7650","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kaushik","family":"Jayaram","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder , UCB 427, 80309 CO ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1012426720699","article-title":"RHex: a biologically inspired hexapod runner","volume":"11","author":"Altendorfer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Auton Robot"},{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ydbio.2005.07.006","article-title":"Insect appendages and comparative ontogenetics","volume":"286","author":"Angelini","year":"2005","journal-title":"Dev Biol"},{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib6","article-title":"Genghis, a six legged autonomous walking robot","author":"Angle","year":"1989"},{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2012.01.044","article-title":"Figure tracking by flies is supported by parallel visual streams","volume":"22","author":"Aptekar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib1","volume-title":"Feedback systems: An introduction for scientists and engineers","author":"\u00c5str\u00f6m","year":"2010"},{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib2","volume-title":"Adaptive Control","author":"\u00c5str\u00f6m","year":"2008","edition":"2nd ed"},{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib8","article-title":"A spider\u2019s world: senses and behavior","author":"Barth","year":"2002"},{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s00359-020-01449-z","article-title":"A spider in motion: facets of sensory guidance","volume":"207","author":"Barth","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Comp Physiol A"},{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1007\/s00359-007-0268-0","article-title":"Functional recovery following manipulation of muscles and sense organs in the stick insect leg","volume":"193","author":"B\u00e4ssler","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Comp Physiol A"},{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1975.38.2.285","article-title":"Receptive fields of cerebellar cells receiving exteroceptive input in a gymnotid fish","volume":"38","author":"Bastian","year":"1975","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"key":"2025073120015820100_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2483","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1996.76.4.2483","article-title":"Plasticity in an electrosensory system. 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