{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T00:59:43Z","timestamp":1787792383267,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,20]],"date-time":"2020-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1597881600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"H2020-EXPANSE"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010661","name":"Horizon 2020","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["874627"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["874627"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010661","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"LonglTools project","award":["874739"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["874739"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000289","name":"Cancer Research UK","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000289","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Population Research Committee Project grant 'Mechanomics\u2019","award":["22184"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22184"]}]},{"name":"EXPOSOME-NL"},{"name":"the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research","award":["024.004.017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["024.004.017"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018814","name":"MRC Centre for Environment and Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["MR\/L01341X\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/L01341X\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018814","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018814","name":"MRC Centre for Environment and Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["MR\/S019669\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/S019669\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018814","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"National Institute for Health Research Imperial Biomedical Research Centre"},{"name":"NIHR Health Protection Research Units in Environmental Exposures"},{"name":"Health and Chemical and Radiation Threats and Hazards"},{"name":"BHF Centre for Research Excellence","award":["RE\/18\/4\/34215"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RE\/18\/4\/34215"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>The recent COVID-19 outbreak has generated an unprecedented public health crisis, with millions of infections and hundreds of thousands of deaths worldwide. Using hospital-based or mortality data, several COVID-19 risk factors have been identified, but these may be confounded or biased.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Using SARS-CoV-2 infection test data (n\u2009=\u20094509 tests; 1325 positive) from Public Health England, linked to the UK Biobank study, we explored the contribution of demographic, social, health risk, medical and environmental factors to COVID-19 risk. We used multivariable and penalized logistic regression models for the risk of (i) being tested, (ii) testing positive\/negative in the study population and, adopting a test negative design, (iii) the risk of testing positive within the tested population.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>In the fully adjusted model, variables independently associated with the risk of being tested for COVID-19 with odds ratio &amp;gt;1.05 were: male sex; Black ethnicity; social disadvantage (as measured by education, housing and income); occupation (healthcare worker, retired, unemployed); ever smoker; severely obese; comorbidities; and greater exposure to particulate matter (PM) 2.5 absorbance. Of these, only male sex, non-White ethnicity and lower educational attainment, and none of the comorbidities or health risk factors, were associated with testing positive among tested individuals.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>We adopted a careful and exhaustive approach within a large population-based cohort, which enabled us to triangulate evidence linking male sex, lower educational attainment and non-White ethnicity with the risk of COVID-19. The elucidation of the joint and independent effects of these factors is a high-priority area for further research to inform on the natural history of COVID-19.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyaa134","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,3]],"date-time":"2020-07-03T03:19:05Z","timestamp":1593746345000},"page":"1454-1467","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":113,"title":["Risk factors for positive and negative COVID-19 tests: a cautious and in-depth analysis of UK biobank data"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"49","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8341-5436","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc","family":"Chadeau-Hyam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK"},{"name":"MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Imperial College, London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0781-3624","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Bodinier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK"},{"name":"MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Imperial College, London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua","family":"Elliott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK"},{"name":"MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Imperial College, London, UK"},{"name":"Royal Surrey County Hospital, Guildford, Surrey, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1363-6537","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew 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