{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T07:02:56Z","timestamp":1790233376575,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790035200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":35,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Qatar Research Development and Innovation Council","award":["ARG02-0402-240119"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ARG02-0402-240119"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Observational studies are central to assessing vaccine effectiveness and informing public health policy. The two most common designs are test-negative case-control and cohort studies, yet direct comparisons of their performance using the same population, data sources, and analytic strategies remain rare. This study compares these two designs within a national population using harmonized analytic approaches.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Nationwide, matched test-negative case-control and retrospective cohort studies were conducted in Qatar between 1 January 2021 and 18 December 2021 to assess the effectiveness of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) primary series of BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 against any severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection, symptomatic infection, and severe COVID-19.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In the test-negative design, BNT162b2 effectiveness was 71.0% [95% confidence interval (CI): 70.1\u201371.9] against any infection, 75.6% (95% CI: 74.2\u201377.0) against symptomatic infection, and 96.3% (95% CI: 95.2\u201397.2) against severe COVID-19. In the cohort design, after adjustment for testing rate, corresponding effectiveness was 78.0% (95% CI: 77.1\u201378.9), 81.2% (95% CI: 79.8\u201382.5), and 98.0% (95% CI: 96.6\u201398.8), respectively. Both designs demonstrated similar, rapid, and largely linear waning of effectiveness in both magnitude and pattern. Test-negative design estimates lay between cohort estimates with and without adjustment for testing rate. Similar results were observed for mRNA-1273.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Both designs yielded consistent effectiveness estimates across vaccines and clinically relevant outcomes, with only modest differences related to handling of health-seeking behavior. These findings demonstrate that, when rigorously implemented using quality data and harmonized analytic strategies, both designs produce comparable effectiveness estimates.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyag210","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,6]],"date-time":"2026-09-06T11:22:07Z","timestamp":1788693727000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Evaluating COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness across epidemiologic designs: test-negative case-control versus retrospective cohort analyses in a nationwide study"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"55","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7618-9688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Layan","family":"Sukik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Disease Epidemiology Group, Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Cornell University , 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F","family":"Abdul-Rahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, QU Health, Qatar University , Doha,","place":["Qatar"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9252-1038","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gheyath K","family":"Nasrallah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Science, College of Health Sciences, QU Health, Qatar University , Doha,","place":["Qatar"]},{"name":"Biomedical Research Center, QU Health, Qatar University , Doha,","place":["Qatar"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed Ghaith","family":"Al-Kuwari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primary Health Care Corporation , Doha,","place":["Qatar"]},{"name":"College of Medicine, Qatar University , Doha,","place":["Qatar"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adeel 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