{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T14:41:18Z","timestamp":1781707278537,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761004800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a global plastic commodity with the third-highest rank in production volume after polyethylene and polypropylene. Unfortunately, the chlorine element therein can be detrimental to the environment. Thus, a life cycle assessment (LCA) for the PVC industry becomes important. We conducted a process-level LCA with a gate-to-gate system boundary of suspension PVC (S-PVC) production in the Indonesian industry using primary industrial data. The results were then compared with the Chinese PVC industry in Anhui Province and the EU27 database from Ecoinvent 3.8. The assessment was carried out using OpenLCA 1.11 software with the CML-IA baseline method. According to the results of this study, the Indonesian and Chinese PVC industries have a lower impact on marine aquatic ecotoxicity, human toxicity, and freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity compared with the EU27 database. In contrast, the Chinese PVC industry has the highest impact on global warming potential (GWP). This study also demonstrates that chlorine from stripped vinyl chloride monomer and PVC dust release is the cause of marine aquatic ecotoxicity, with portions of 30.82%, 59.02%, and 23.86% for the Indonesian PVC industry, the Chinese PVC industry, and the EU27 database, respectively. The organic additives also add to the impact of human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity. In addition, the utilization of refrigerant compounds and carbon dioxide and methane emissions during the process cause GWP. Finally, a\u2009\u00b1\u20095% change in the input amount causes an alteration in marine aquatic ecotoxicity of \u20137.02% to 12.97% for the Indonesian PVC industry, \u201326.43% to 18.99% for the Chinese PVC industry, and \u201311.55% to 9.77% for the EU27 database.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/inteam\/vjaf145","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T14:45:29Z","timestamp":1761057929000},"page":"583-594","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Comparative life cycle assessment of suspension polyvinyl chloride production: case for the Indonesian industry, Chinese industry, and European database"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Ernie S A","family":"Soekotjo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung , Bandung,","place":["Indonesia"]},{"name":"Research Center for Sustainable Industrial and Manufacturing Systems, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) , South Tangerang,","place":["Indonesia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hismiaty","family":"Bahua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center for Sustainable Industrial and Manufacturing Systems, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) , South Tangerang,","place":["Indonesia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Soen","family":"Steven","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center for Sustainable Industrial and Manufacturing Systems, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) , South Tangerang,","place":["Indonesia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elsye Veradika","family":"Yemensia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung , Bandung,","place":["Indonesia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nugroho Adi","family":"Sasongko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center for Sustainable Industrial and Manufacturing Systems, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) , South Tangerang,","place":["Indonesia"]},{"name":"Energy Security Graduate Program, Universitas Pertahanan Republik Indonesia , West Java,","place":["Indonesia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tjokorde Walmiki","family":"Samadhi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung , Bandung,","place":["Indonesia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akhmad Zainal","family":"Abidin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung , Bandung,","place":["Indonesia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B1","author":"6Wresearch","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"012039","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/1268\/1\/012039","article-title":"Is bio-labeled material always environmentally friendly? Investigation of 5 types of shopping bags in Indonesia by impact assessment","volume":"1268","author":"Abidin","year":"2023","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajce.2025.06.007","article-title":"A joint exergy analysis\/exergetic resilience approach for evaluation of suspension PVC production with VCM recovery","volume":"53","author":"Aguilar-V\u00e1squez","year":"2025","journal-title":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2021.09.021","article-title":"How to enhance the environmental sustainability of WEEE plastics management: An LCA study","volume":"135","author":"Ardolino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Waste Management (New York, N.Y.)"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-016-1164-z","article-title":"Approach to qualify decision support maturity of new versus established impact assessment methods\u2014demonstrated for the categories acidification and eutrophication","volume":"22","author":"Bach","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.165222","article-title":"Does PET trays sorting affect the sustainability of plastic waste? An LCA and cost-revenue approach","volume":"897","author":"Barjoveanu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Science of the Total Environment"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2019.115270","article-title":"Chemical composition and ecotoxicity of plastic and car tire rubber leachates to aquatic organisms","volume":"169","author":"Capolupo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Research"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B8","author":"Ceresana","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2024.107477","article-title":"A novel approach for environmental impact assessment of road construction projects in India","volume":"106","author":"Chaudhary","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environmental Impact Assessment Review"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2019.00035","article-title":"Comparison of trihalomethane formation using chlorine-based disinfectants within a model system; applications within point-of-use drinking water treatment","volume":"7","author":"Clayton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Frontiers in Environmental Science"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B11","author":"Ecoinvent","year":"2025"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1002\/vnl.21754","article-title":"Twenty years of the polyvinyl chloride sustainability challenges","volume":"26","author":"Everard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cscee.2021.100142","article-title":"Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability","volume":"4","author":"Evode","year":"2021","journal-title":"Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.5109\/7172186","article-title":"Municipal solid waste (MSW) reduction through incineration for electricity purposes and its environmental performance: A case study in Bantargebang, West Java, Indonesia","volume":"11","author":"Febijanto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Evergreen"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spc.2017.05.001","article-title":"Life cycle assessment model for the chlor-alkali process: A comprehensive review of resources and available technologies","volume":"12","author":"Garcia-Herrero","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sustainable Production and Consumption"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B16","author":"GlobalData","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.3390\/chemengineering7050076","article-title":"Chemical and process inherent safety analysis of large-scale suspension poly(vinyl chloride) production","volume":"7","author":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Delgado","year":"2023","journal-title":"ChemEngineering"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.153016","article-title":"Insight into dechlorination of pyrolysis oil during fast co-pyrolysis of high-alkali coal and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)","volume":"494","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chemical Engineering Journal"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B19","author":"Indonesian Trade Map","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B20","author":"IPCC","year":"2025"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"012002","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/506\/1\/012002","article-title":"A comparative study of life cycle impact assessment using different software programs","volume":"506","author":"Iswara","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-819424-9.00011-2","volume-title":"Electrochemical power sources: Fundamentals, systems, and applications","author":"Ito","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6269","DOI":"10.1007\/s10668-022-02302-w","article-title":"Influence of different LCIA methods on an exemplary scenario analysis from a process development LCA case study","volume":"25","author":"Koch","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environment, Development and Sustainability"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17010173","article-title":"Risks associated with the presence of polyvinyl chloride in the environment and methods for its disposal and utilization","volume":"17","author":"Kudzin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Materials (Basel, Switzerland)"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3035","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14153035","article-title":"A brief review of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) recycling","volume":"14","author":"Lewandowski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Polymers"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106642","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2021.106642","article-title":"Impacts and mitigation measures of plastic waste: A critical review","volume":"90","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environmental Impact Assessment Review"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2019.104584","article-title":"Stocks and flows of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in China: 1980-2050","volume":"154","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Resources, Conservation and Recycling"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5324","DOI":"10.3390\/su11195324","article-title":"A comparative life cycle assessment of meat trays made of various packaging materials","volume":"11","author":"Maga","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B29","author":"Marshall","year":"1988"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5493","DOI":"10.2175\/193864718825138925","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of PVC water and sewer pipe and comparative sustainability analysis of pipe materials","volume":"2018","author":"Parvez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B31","author":"Plastics Europe and EPRO","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1918","DOI":"10.1007\/s12155-022-10403-7","article-title":"Simulation study of bamboo leaves valorization to small-scale electricity and bio-silica using Aspen Plus","volume":"15","author":"Ramli","year":"2022","journal-title":"BioEnergy Research"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2020.106469","article-title":"Renewable energy from solid waste: Life cycle analysis and social welfare","volume":"85","author":"Ramos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environmental Impact Assessment Review"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2055","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6700(02)00039-4","article-title":"Technical progresses for PVC production","volume":"27","author":"Saeki","year":"2002","journal-title":"Progress in Polymer Science"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B35","author":"Selena","year":"2025"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2021.11.109","article-title":"Aspen Plus simulation of a low capacity organic Rankine cycle heated by solar energy","volume":"8","author":"Shalaby","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy Reports"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"012036","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/1201\/1\/012036","article-title":"Environmental impact study on conversion of multilayer metallized packaging to paving blocks with a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach","volume":"1201","author":"Sinaga","year":"2023","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"060011","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0199436","article-title":"Potential research of study PVC products life cycle assessment in Indonesia","volume":"3073","author":"Soekotjo","year":"2024","journal-title":"AIP Conference Proceedings"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B39","author":"Speight","year":"2005"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2022.119350","article-title":"Continued assessment of chlorine reactivity with environmental materials for hazard assessment of large scale releases","volume":"291","author":"Spicer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmospheric Environment"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B41","author":"Statista","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"012034","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/963\/1\/012034","article-title":"High cell density submerged membrane photobioreactor (SMPBR) for microalgae cultivation","volume":"963","author":"Steven","year":"2022","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2023.111691","article-title":"Perspectives and research direction on polymeric membrane integration for sustainable aquaculture industries","volume":"12","author":"Steven","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.1007\/s12649-022-01957-w","article-title":"A simulation study on rice husk to electricity and silica mini-plant: From organic Rankine cycle (ORC) study to its business and investment plan","volume":"14","author":"Steven","year":"2023","journal-title":"Waste and Biomass Valorization"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2705","DOI":"10.1007\/s12649-023-02348-5","article-title":"A simple material and energy input\u2013output performance in evaluating silica production from conventional, fume, and biomass thermochemical conversion routes","volume":"15","author":"Steven","year":"2024","journal-title":"Waste and Biomass Valorization"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27051599","article-title":"The cradle-to-cradle life cycle assessment of polyethylene terephthalate: Environmental perspective","volume":"27","author":"Tamoor","year":"2022","journal-title":"Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2024.107590","article-title":"A comparative analysis of recent life cycle assessment guidelines and frameworks: Methodological evidence from the packaging industry","volume":"108","author":"Tascione","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environmental Impact Assessment Review"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.3390\/fuels3040034","article-title":"Process simulation and design considerations for biodiesel production from rubber seed oil","volume":"3","author":"Trirahayu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Fuels"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.3390\/hydrogen4020019","article-title":"Process assessment of integrated hydrogen production from by-products of cottonseed oil-based biodiesel as a circular economy approach","volume":"4","author":"Trirahayu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hydrogen"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B50","author":"Vallette","year":"2018"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frsus.2022.801668","article-title":"Transition life cycle assessment: A new method to face ecological transition","volume":"3","author":"Ventura","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frontiers in Sustainability"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chempr.2022.03.025","article-title":"Reaction: Direct chlorination of ethane to dichloroethane","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"740224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2023.740224","article-title":"Membrane-based recirculating aquaculture system: Opportunities and challenges in shrimp farming","volume":"579","author":"Widiasa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.125351","article-title":"Industrial disposal processes for treatment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash","volume":"243","author":"Xiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2023.107292","article-title":"Decarbonization of the wind power sector in China: Evolving trend and driving factors","volume":"103","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environmental Impact Assessment Review"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.10.171","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of polyvinyl chloride production and its recyclability in China","volume":"142","author":"Ye","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Cleaner Production"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb8905","article-title":"Disinfection threatens aquatic ecosystems","volume":"368","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science (New York, N.Y.)"},{"key":"2026030502522742800_vjaf145-B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2024.107509","article-title":"Study on carbon footprint evaluation and carbon reduction path of cross-basin water transfer project\u2014A case study of the Yellow River East diversion project in China","volume":"106","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environmental Impact Assessment Review"}],"container-title":["Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ieam\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/inteam\/vjaf145\/64829088\/vjaf145.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ieam\/article-pdf\/22\/2\/583\/64829088\/vjaf145.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ieam\/article-pdf\/22\/2\/583\/64829088\/vjaf145.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T07:52:36Z","timestamp":1772697156000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ieam\/article\/22\/2\/583\/8294126"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/inteam\/vjaf145","relation":{},"ISSN":["1551-3777","1551-3793"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1551-3777","type":"print"},{"value":"1551-3793","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]}}}