{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T21:43:59Z","timestamp":1791582239475,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,10]],"date-time":"2023-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702166400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>This paper presents a non-contact method for the detection of changes in sow vulva size in a group pen. The traditional approach to estrus detection is manually pressing down on the back of the sow to elicit standing responses; however, this method causes undue distress for sows not in estrus. When a sow is in estrus, the vulva is red and swollen due to the presence of endocrine. Monitoring changes in vulva size to detect estrus with as little impact on the sow as possible is the focus of this study. This is achieved using a single camera combined with a deep learning framework. Our approach comprises two steps: vulva detection and vulva size conversion. Images of sows of Yorkshire, Landrace, and Duroc breeds were collected in group housing, and the vulva was detected through artificial markers and the network architecture of YOLO v4. Based on the internal and external parameters of the camera, the detected size was converted into millimeters and the results of manual measurement (MM) and automatic calculation combined to calculate the size of the vulva. Analysis of the calculated size compared with MM indicates that the object recognition rate of the system exceeds 97.06%, with a size error of only +\u20051.70 to \u22124.47\u00a0mm and high-calculation efficiency (&amp;gt;2.8 frames\/s). Directions for future research include the automatic detection of pig width.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jas\/skad407","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,10]],"date-time":"2023-12-10T14:36:26Z","timestamp":1702218986000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Using deep learning to accurately detect sow vulva size in a group pen with a single camera"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"102","author":[{"given":"Shen-Chang","family":"Chang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern Region Branch, Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture , Pingtung 91247 , Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin-Ru","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology , Pingtung 91201 , Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hao-Yuan","family":"Kuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology , Pingtung 91201 , Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shao-Yu","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology , Pingtung 91201 , Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6473-3745","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chia-Ying","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bachelor of Program in Scientific Agriculture, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology , Pingtung 91201 , Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0001","volume-title":"YOLOv4: Optimal","author":"Bochkovskiy","year":"2020"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0002","article-title":"Reproduction in miniature pet pigs","volume-title":"American Association of Swine Practitioners, Care and Management of Miniature Pet Pigs: Guidelines for the Veterinary Practitioner","author":"Braun","year":"1993","edition":"1st ed"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1266","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.1266","article-title":"Detection of protein, starch, oil, and moisture content of corn kernels using one-dimensional convolutional autoencoder and near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"9","author":"Cataltas","year":"2023","journal-title":"PeerJ Comput. Sci"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8749","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-12096-6","article-title":"Using deep learning to identify maturity and 3D distance in pineapple fields","volume":"12","author":"Chang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1729","DOI":"10.13031\/trans.12826","article-title":"Dimensions of the modern pig","volume":"61","author":"Condotta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trans. ASABE"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.14178","article-title":"Morphometric changes on the vulva from proestrus to oestrus of nulliparous and multiparous HYPERPROLIFIC sows","volume":"57","author":"De la Cruz-Vigo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-409527-4.00016-X","article-title":"Biology and Diseases of Swine","volume-title":"American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine, Laboratory Animal Medicine","author":"Helke","year":"2015","edition":"3rd Edition"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3019","DOI":"10.2527\/2000.78123019x","article-title":"Responsiveness to boar stimuli and change in vulvar reddening in relation to ovulation in weaned sows","volume":"78","author":"Langendijk","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.5187\/jast.2019.61.3.163","article-title":"Quantifiable and feasible estrus detection using the ultrasonic sensor array and digital infrared thermography","volume":"61","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Technol"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11061485","article-title":"Oestrus analysis of sows based on bionic boars and machine vision technology","volume":"11","author":"Lei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2010.06.003","article-title":"Detecting oestrus by monitoring sows\u2019 visits to a boar","volume":"74","author":"Ostersen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0014","first-page":"6517","article-title":"YOLO9000: better, faster, stronger","author":"Redmon","year":"2017"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0015","volume-title":"YOLOv3: An Incremental Im","author":"Redmon","year":"2018"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0016","first-page":"779","article-title":"You only look once: unified, real-time object detection","author":"Redmon","year":"2016"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1093\/tas\/txz160","article-title":"Methods for reproductive tract scoring as a tool for improving sow productivity","volume":"4","author":"Romoser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Anim. Sci"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.5713\/ajas.19.0576","article-title":"Variations in the body surface temperature of sows during the post weaning period and its relation to subsequent reproductive performance","volume":"33","author":"Ruey-Chee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Asian-Australas J. Anim. Sci"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.54846\/jshap\/685","article-title":"Vulvar skin temperature changes significantly during estrus in swine as determined by Digital Infrared Thermography","volume":"19","author":"Scolari","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Swine Health Prod"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2014.07.017","article-title":"Variations in the vulvar temperature of sows during proestrus and estrus as determined by infrared thermography and its relation to ovulation","volume":"82","author":"Sim\u00f5es","year":"2014","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0021","first-page":"251","article-title":"Reproductive cycles in pigs","volume":"124","author":"Sodeda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Animal Peproduction Sci"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-4320(94)90076-0","article-title":"Oestrous symptoms in primiparous sows. 1. Duration and intensity of external Oestrous symptoms","volume":"3","author":"Sterning","year":"1994","journal-title":"Animal Reproduction Sci"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2012.01.030","article-title":"The use of digital infrared thermal imaging to detect estrus in gilts","volume":"78","author":"Sykesa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Theriogenology. Sci"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4521","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2793306","article-title":"Vehicle-to-vehicle distance estimation using a low-resolution camera based on visible light communications","volume":"6","author":"Tram","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19307","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-020-08761-5","article-title":"Single\u2013camera vehicle speed measurement using the geometry of the imaging system","volume":"79","author":"Vakili","year":"2020","journal-title":"Multimed Tools Appl"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.3354\/cr030079","article-title":"Advantages of the mean absolute error (MAE) over the root mean square error (RMSE) in assessing average model performance","volume":"30","author":"Willmott","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clim. Res"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(58)91053-1","article-title":"Body temperature variations in dairy cattle during the estrous cycle and pregnancy","volume":"41","author":"Wrenn","year":"1958","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0028","first-page":"558","article-title":"One-shot learning with pseudo-labeling for cattle video segmentation in smart livestock farming","volume":"12","author":"Yongliang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"2024021914555476100_CIT0029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100090","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atech.2022.100090","article-title":"Detecting sow vulva size change around estrus using machine vision technology","volume":"3","author":"Ziteng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Smart Agri. Technol"}],"container-title":["Journal of Animal Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jas\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/jas\/skad407\/54207189\/skad407.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jas\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/jas\/skad407\/56705400\/skad407.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jas\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/jas\/skad407\/56705400\/skad407.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,5]],"date-time":"2024-11-05T16:36:13Z","timestamp":1730824573000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jas\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/jas\/skad407\/7468508"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,10]]},"references-count":27,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jas\/skad407","relation":{},"ISSN":["0021-8812","1525-3163"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0021-8812","type":"print"},{"value":"1525-3163","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,10]]},"article-number":"skad407"}}