{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T23:24:30Z","timestamp":1787009070679,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":11,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]],"date-time":"2024-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1708646400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Previous research has evaluated the extent to which cocaine and other drugs were detectable on currency in the USA. The literature was in agreement that the majority of bills exhibited some degree of contamination. With the increase of fentanyl in the illicit drug supply, this study was designed to evaluate the extent that fentanyl, cocaine, methamphetamine and other substances were present on circulating currency in 2022. A quantitative assay using liquid chromatography\u2013triple quadrupole mass spectrometry was developed and validated to detect six analytes: fentanyl, 4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine, acetylfentanyl, benzylfentanyl, cocaine and methamphetamine. One-dollar bills were collected from 13 cities across the country. Sample preparation consisted of soaking the bills in methanol followed by liquid\u2013liquid extraction. Chromatographic separation was achieved using a C18 analytical column and gradient elution with ammonium formate in water (5\u2009mM, pH 3) and 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile. The quantitative working range for this assay was 0.1\u2009\u03bcg to 1.0\u2009\u03bcg per bill (equivalent to 1\u2009ng\/mL to 100\u2009ng\/mL of extract). Fentanyl was detected on the majority (63%) of samples, with 61% of samples having \u22650.1\u2009\u03bcg of fentanyl and 4% of samples having \u22651.0\u2009\u03bcg. Cocaine and methamphetamine were detected on 100% and 98% of bills, respectively, typically in amounts &amp;gt;1.0\u2009\u03bcg. The remaining fentanyl-related substances were detected in 15% of samples in amounts no &amp;gt;0.69\u2009\u03bcg per bill and exclusively in the presence of fentanyl. Unsurprisingly, areas of the country with higher incidence of fentanyl use yielded higher frequency of contaminated bills and higher concentrations. Human exposure to drugs on currency is unlikely to have any significant impacts toxicologically or pharmacologically; however, our research findings suggest that paper currency could serve as a useful substrate for surveillance of drug trends regionally, nationally and\/or internationally.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bkae010","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]],"date-time":"2024-02-15T16:34:35Z","timestamp":1708014875000},"page":"141-149","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Determination of fentanyl contamination on United States paper currency by LC\u2013QQQ-MS"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"48","author":[{"given":"Matthew P","family":"Hewes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University , 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA"},{"name":"NMS Labs , 200 Welsh Road, Horsham, PA 19044, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1638-3259","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Donna M","family":"Papsun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NMS Labs , 200 Welsh Road, Horsham, PA 19044, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2400-4711","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barry K","family":"Logan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University , 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA"},{"name":"NMS Labs , 200 Welsh Road, Horsham, PA 19044, USA"},{"name":"Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation , 206 Welsh Road, Horsham, PA 19044, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1775-1882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alex J","family":"Krotulski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University , 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA"},{"name":"Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation , 206 Welsh Road, Horsham, PA 19044, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024032816484742500_R1","article-title":"Understanding the Epidemic. Drug Overdose, CDC Injury Center","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"},{"key":"2024032816484742500_R2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2022.109398","article-title":"Trends in seizures of powders and pills containing illicit fentanyl in the United States, 2018 through 2021","volume":"234","author":"Palamar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence"},{"key":"2024032816484742500_R3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2019.04.010","article-title":"Fentanyl shock: the changing geography of overdose in the United States","volume":"70","author":"Zoorob","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of Drug Policy"},{"key":"2024032816484742500_R4","article-title":"The Tragic Rise of Fentanyl, Mapped","volume-title":"The Wall Street Journal","author":"Rust"},{"key":"2024032816484742500_R5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/20.4.213","article-title":"Cocaine contamination of United States paper currency","volume":"20","author":"Oyler","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Analytical Toxicology"},{"key":"2024032816484742500_R6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bky051","article-title":"The detection of novel stimulants in oral fluid from users reporting Ecstasy, Molly and MDMA Ingestion","volume":"42","author":"Krotulski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Analytical Toxicology"},{"key":"2024032816484742500_R7","article-title":"Standard practices for method validation in forensic toxicology","volume-title":"ASB Standard 036","author":"AAFS Standards Board (ASB)","year":"2019"},{"key":"2024032816484742500_R8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.12097","article-title":"The quantitation of cocaine on U.S. currency: survey and significance of the levels of contamination","volume":"58","author":"Jourdan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Forensic Sciences"},{"key":"2024032816484742500_R9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS16193J","article-title":"Detection of cocaine on various denominations of United States currency","volume":"43","author":"Negrusz","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Forensic Sciences"},{"key":"2024032816484742500_R10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-0738(01)00401-7","article-title":"Drug contamination of US paper currency","volume":"121","author":"Jenkins","year":"2001","journal-title":"Forensic Science International"},{"key":"2024032816484742500_R11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.108416","article-title":"Fentanyl and fentanyl analogs in the illicit stimulant supply: results from U.S. drug seizure data, 2011\u20132016","volume":"218","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence"}],"container-title":["Journal of Analytical Toxicology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jat\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/jat\/bkae010\/56831523\/bkae010.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jat\/article-pdf\/48\/3\/141\/57109016\/bkae010.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jat\/article-pdf\/48\/3\/141\/57109016\/bkae010.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]],"date-time":"2024-03-28T13:50:30Z","timestamp":1711633830000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jat\/article\/48\/3\/141\/7618938"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]]},"references-count":11,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jat\/bkae010","relation":{},"ISSN":["0146-4760","1945-2403"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0146-4760","type":"print"},{"value":"1945-2403","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]]}}}