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For example, mammals and birds have maintained conserved sex chromosome systems over long evolutionary time periods. Other vertebrates, in contrast, have undergone frequent sex chromosome transitions, which is even more amazing considering we still know comparatively little across large swaths of their respective phylogenies. One reptile group in particular, the gecko lizards (infraorder Gekkota), shows an exceptional lability with regard to sex chromosome transitions and may possess the majority of transitions within squamates (lizards and snakes). However, detailed genomic and cytogenetic information about sex chromosomes is lacking for most gecko species, leaving large gaps in our understanding of the evolutionary processes at play. To address this, we assembled a chromosome-level genome for a gecko (Sphaerodactylidae: Sphaerodactylus) and used this assembly to search for sex chromosomes among six closely related species using a variety of genomic data, including whole-genome re-sequencing, RADseq, and RNAseq. Previous work has identified XY systems in two species of Sphaerodactylus geckos. We expand upon that work to identify between two and four sex chromosome cis-transitions (XY to a new XY) within the genus. Interestingly, we confirmed two different linkage groups as XY sex chromosome systems that were previously unknown to act as sex chromosomes in tetrapods (syntenic with Gallus chromosome 3 and Gallus chromosomes 18\/30\/33), further highlighting a unique and fascinating trend that most linkage groups have the potential to act as sex chromosomes in squamates.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jhered\/esac016","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,24]],"date-time":"2022-03-24T17:53:01Z","timestamp":1648144381000},"page":"272-287","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Chromosome-Level Genome Assembly Reveals Dynamic Sex Chromosomes in Neotropical Leaf-Litter Geckos (Sphaerodactylidae:\n                    <i>Sphaerodactylus<\/i>\n                    )"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"113","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4243-5788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brendan J","family":"Pinto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Milwaukee Public Museum , Milwaukee, WI 53233 , USA"},{"name":"School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85281 , USA"},{"name":"Center for Evolution and Medicine, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85281 , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shannon E","family":"Keating","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University , Milwaukee, WI 53233 , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3114-1469","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stuart V","family":"Nielsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University in Shreveport , Shreveport, LA 71115 , USA"},{"name":"Division of Herpetology, Florida Museum of Natural History , Gainesville, FL 32611 , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel P","family":"Scantlebury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington, DC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan D","family":"Daza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Sam Houston State University , Huntsville, TX 77340 , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0204-8003","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tony","family":"Gamble","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Milwaukee Public Museum , Milwaukee, WI 53233 , USA"},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University , Milwaukee, WI 53233 , USA"},{"name":"Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota , St Paul, MN 55455 , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023040100490369200_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/mst009","article-title":"Lack of dosage compensation accompanies the arrested stage of sex chromosome evolution in ostriches.","volume":"30","author":"Adolfsson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol"},{"key":"2023040100490369200_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10390","article-title":"The genome of the green anole lizard and a comparative analysis with birds and mammals.","volume":"477","author":"Alf\u00f6ldi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2023040100490369200_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1186\/s13059-019-1829-6","article-title":"RaGOO: fast and accurate reference-guided scaffolding of draft genomes.","volume":"20","author":"Alonge","year":"2019","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"2023040100490369200_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5633","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1820320116","article-title":"Regulatory changes in pterin and carotenoid genes underlie balanced color polymorphisms in the wall lizard","volume":"116","author":"Andrade","year":"2019","journal-title":"PNAS"},{"key":"2023040100490369200_","author":"Andrews","year":"2010"},{"key":"2023040100490369200_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"evab119","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evab119","article-title":"Are geckos special in sex determination? Independently evolved differentiated ZZ\/ZW sex chromosomes in carphodactylid geckos.","volume":"13","author":"Augstenov\u00e1","year":"2021","journal-title":"Genome Biol Evol"},{"key":"2023040100490369200_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.1111\/evo.13543","article-title":"ZW, XY, and yet ZW: sex chromosome evolution in snakes even more complicated.","volume":"72","author":"Augstenov\u00e1","year":"2018","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"2023040100490369200_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1164","article-title":"Adaptation shapes patterns of genome evolution on sexual and asexual chromosomes in Drosophila.","volume":"34","author":"Bachtrog","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"2023040100490369200_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gde.2006.10.007","article-title":"A dynamic view of sex chromosome 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