{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]],"date-time":"2026-03-01T17:56:38Z","timestamp":1772387798556,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]],"date-time":"2026-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772323200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":28,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"NIGMS","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R35GM138381"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R35GM138381"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"NIAID","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21AI156153"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21AI156153"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"NIAID","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["4R00GM141482"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4R00GM141482"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000011","name":"HHMI","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GT15754"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GT15754"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000011","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000011","name":"HHMI","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["T32AI055432"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32AI055432"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000011","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular pathogen that can infect most nucleated cell types in rodents and humans. Parasite infection is regulated by inflammasome activation, downstream of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) priming, and interferon \u03b3 (IFN-\u03b3)-mediated activation of immunity inducible GTPases. In vivo, the activation of these pathways overlaps, however, the molecular mechanism of cooperation between IFN-\u03b3 signaling and inflammasome activation has not been rigorously explored during T. gondii infection. Here we show that IFN-\u03b3 is sufficient to prime T. gondii-induced inflammasome activation in murine myeloid cells. The cytosolic DNA sensor absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasome plays a dominant role in IL-1\u03b2 release through caspase-1\/11 and ASC in cooperation with NLRP3. Unexpectedly, we found that AIM2 inflammasome activation was not dependent on parasite killing as iNOS-deficiency rescued T. gondii clearance but did not inhibit IL-1\u03b2 release or cell death. Instead, we found that depleting host mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) blocked IL-1\u03b2 release, suggesting that host DNA is the ligand for AIM2. Moreover, we found that expressing mitochondrial association factor 1 (MAF1I) from the hyper-virulent type I strain in type II T. gondii significantly inhibited the release of mtDNA into the host cell cytosol and reduced inflammasome activation. These data indicate that T. gondii infection in the context of IFN-\u03b3 signaling leads to AIM2 inflammasome activation by host mtDNA, a process that is competitively inhibited by MAF1I-mediated mitochondrial recruitment to the parasitophorous vacuole.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jimmun\/vkaf360","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]],"date-time":"2026-03-01T17:14:16Z","timestamp":1772385256000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["<i>Toxoplasma gondii<\/i>\n                    effector MAF1 blocks mouse AIM2 inflammasome activation by inhibiting mtDNA release"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"215","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5095-7212","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiao-Yu","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology at the Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia School of Medicine , Charlottesville, VA,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nadia K","family":"Holness","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology at the Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia School of Medicine , Charlottesville, VA,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samantha L","family":"Lempke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology at the Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia School of Medicine , Charlottesville, VA,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lena","family":"Pernas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California , Los Angeles, CA,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Laura E","family":"Newman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia School of Medicine , Charlottesville, VA,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sarah E","family":"Ewald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology at the Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia School of Medicine , Charlottesville, VA,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.11.2.267","article-title":"Structures of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites, bradyzoites, and sporozoites and biology and development of tissue cysts","volume":"11","author":"Dubey","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2005-02-0666","article-title":"CD11c- and CD11b-expressing mouse leukocytes transport single Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites to the brain","volume":"107","author":"Courret","year":"2006","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1006\/expr.1999.4412","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii resides in a vacuole that avoids fusion with host cell endocytic and exocytic vesicular trafficking pathways","volume":"92","author":"Mordue","year":"1999","journal-title":"Exp Parasitol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2009.06.005","article-title":"Gut commensal bacteria direct a protective immune response against Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"6","author":"Benson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1626","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1109893","article-title":"Immunology: TLR11 activation of dendritic cells by a protozoan profilin-like protein","volume":"308","author":"Yarovinsky","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2012.12.003","article-title":"Combined action of nucleic acid-sensing Toll-like receptors and TLR11\/TLR12 heterodimers imparts resistance to Toxoplasma gondii in mice","volume":"13","author":"Andrade","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1100769","article-title":"Microbial infection-induced expansion of effector T cells overcomes the suppressive effects of regulatory T Cells via an IL-2 deprivation mechanism","volume":"188","author":"Benson","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20100717","article-title":"Strain-specific activation of the NF-\u03baB pathway by GRA15, a novel Toxoplasma gondii dense granule protein","volume":"208","author":"Rosowski","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1008586","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008586","article-title":"Toxoplasma GRA15 and GRA24 are important activators of the host innate immune response in the absence of TLR11","volume":"16","author":"Mukhopadhyay","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2071","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20130103","article-title":"A Toxoplasma dense granule protein, GRA24, modulates the early immune response to infection by promoting a direct and sustained host p38 MAPK activation","volume":"210","author":"Braun","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1008572","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008572","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii dense granule protein GRA24 drives MyD88-independent p38 MAPK activation, IL-12 production and induction of protective immunity","volume":"16","author":"Mercer","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.58","article-title":"Inflammasomes: mechanism of assembly, regulation and signalling","volume":"16","author":"Broz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15514","article-title":"Cleavage of GSDMD by inflammatory caspases determines pyroptotic cell death","volume":"526","author":"Shi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15541","article-title":"Caspase-11 cleaves gasdermin D for non-canonical inflammasome signalling","volume":"526","author":"Kayagaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.01170-13","article-title":"NLRP1 is an inflammasome sensor for Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"82","author":"Ewald","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0117","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01117-13","article-title":"Dual role for inflammasome sensors NLRP1 and NLRP3 in murine resistance to Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"5","author":"Gorfu","year":"2014","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1007872","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007872","article-title":"TLR11-independent inflammasome activation is critical for CD4+ T cell-derived IFN-\u03b3 production and host resistance to Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"15","author":"L\u00f3pez-Yglesias","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9848263","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/9848263","article-title":"Caspase-11 modulates inflammation and attenuates Toxoplasma gondii pathogenesis","volume":"2016","author":"Coutermarsh-Ott","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mediators Inflamm"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.146.1.286","article-title":"Synergistic role of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes in IFN-gamma production and protective immunity induced by an attenuated Toxoplasma gondii vaccine","volume":"146","author":"Gazzinelli","year":"1991","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5997","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.168.12.5997","article-title":"Cutting edge: MyD88 is required for resistance to Toxoplasma gondii infection and regulates parasite-induced IL-12 production by dendritic cells","volume":"168","author":"Scanga","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6932","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.68.12.6932-6938.2000","article-title":"Interleukin-18 (IL-18) enhances innate IL-12-mediated resistance to Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"68","author":"Cai","year":"2000","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2022.102189","article-title":"How did we get here? Insights into mechanisms of immunity-related GTPase targeting to intracellular pathogens","volume":"69","author":"Dockterman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Opin Microbiol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2017.10.021","article-title":"Exposing Toxoplasma gondii hiding inside the vacuole: a role for GBPs, autophagy and host cell death","volume":"40","author":"Saeij","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Opin Microbiol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.185.7.1261","article-title":"Inducible nitric oxide is essential for host control of persistent but not acute infection with the intracellular pathogen Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"185","author":"Scharton-Kersten","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13955","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.25.13955","article-title":"A dichotomous role for nitric oxide during acute Toxoplasma gondii infection in mice","volume":"94","author":"Khan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01393","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01393-18","article-title":"NADPH oxidase and guanylate binding protein 5 restrict survival of avirulent type III strains of Toxoplasma gondii in naive macrophages","volume":"9","author":"Matta","year":"2018","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.81.3.908","article-title":"Interferon gamma blocks the growth of Toxoplasma gondii in human fibroblasts by inducing the host cells to degrade tryptophan","volume":"81","author":"Pfefferkorn","year":"1984","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.108008","article-title":"Human GBP1 differentially targets Salmonella and Toxoplasma to license recognition of microbial ligands and caspase-mediated death","volume":"32","author":"Fisch","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e100926","DOI":"10.15252\/embj.2018100926","article-title":"Human GBP 1 is a microbe-specific gatekeeper of macrophage apoptosis and pyroptosis","volume":"38","author":"Fisch","year":"2019","journal-title":"Embo J"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7535475","article-title":"Altered cytokine export and apoptosis in mice deficient in interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme","volume":"267","author":"Kuida","year":"1995","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04517","article-title":"Bacterial RNA and small antiviral compounds activate caspase-1 through cryopyrin\/Nalp3","volume":"440","author":"Kanneganti","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2006","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1201065","article-title":"NLRP1-dependent Pyroptosis leads to acute lung injury and morbidity in Mice","volume":"189","author":"Kovarova","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1864","article-title":"The AIM2 inflammasome is essential for host defense against cytosolic bacteria and DNA viruses","volume":"11","author":"Rathinam","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2595","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1100088","article-title":"MPYS is required for IFN response factor 3 activation and type I IFN production in the response of cultured phagocytes to bacterial second messengers cyclic-di-AMP and cyclic-di-GMP","volume":"187","author":"Jin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09857","article-title":"RIP3 mediates the embryonic lethality of caspase-8-deficient mice","volume":"471","author":"Kaiser","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1001845","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001845","article-title":"Toxoplasma effector MAF1 mediates recruitment of host mitochondria and impacts the host response","volume":"12","author":"Pernas","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Biol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0204895","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0204895","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infection triggers chronic cachexia and sustained commensal dysbiosis in mice","volume":"13","author":"Hatter","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410210302","article-title":"Beyond receptors: multiple second-messenger systems in brain","volume":"21","author":"Worley","year":"1987","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaf3036","article-title":"An endogenous caspase-11 ligand elicits interleukin-1 release from living dendritic cells","volume":"352","author":"Zanoni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2698","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-46790-y","article-title":"iNOS is necessary for GBP-mediated T. gondii clearance in murine macrophages via vacuole nitration and intravacuolar network collapse","volume":"15","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e372","DOI":"10.1002\/cpz1.372","article-title":"Assessing mitochondrial DNA release into the cytosol and subsequent activation of innate immune-related pathways in mammalian cells","volume":"2","author":"Bryant","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Protoc"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14156","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA stress primes the antiviral innate immune response","volume":"520","author":"West","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1007923","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007923","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii activates a Syk-CARD9-NF-\u03baB signaling axis and gasdermin D-independent release of IL-1\u03b2 during infection of primary human monocytes","volume":"15","author":"Pandori","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-023-00689-6","article-title":"A guide to cell death pathways","volume":"25","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2018.02.003","article-title":"Apoptotic caspases: multiple or mistaken identities?","volume":"28","author":"McArthur","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11926","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1820529116","article-title":"Caspase-8 promotes c-Rel\u2013dependent inflammatory cytokine expression and resistance against Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"116","author":"DeLaney","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.050","article-title":"Influenza virus Z-RNAs induce ZBP1-mediated necroptosis","volume":"180","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3063","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00511-16","article-title":"Z-DNA binding protein mediates host control of Toxoplasma gondii infection","volume":"84","author":"Pittman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1302839","article-title":"FADD and Caspase-8 mediate priming and activation of the canonical and noncanonical Nlrp3 inflammasomes","volume":"192","author":"Gurung","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.03.040","article-title":"Caspase-6 is a key regulator of innate immunity, inflammasome activation, and host defense","volume":"181","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2855","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1700245","article-title":"NLRP3 and potassium efflux drive rapid IL-1\u03b2 release from primary human monocytes during Toxoplasma gondii infection","volume":"199","author":"Gov","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-031210-101340","article-title":"Nucleic acid recognition by the innate immune system","volume":"29","author":"Barbalat","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu Rev Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.28.2.532-535.1980","article-title":"Infective Toxoplasma gondii trophozoites attenuated by ultraviolet irradiation","volume":"28","author":"Grimwood","year":"1980","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.11.037","article-title":"Apoptotic caspases prevent the induction of type I interferons by mitochondrial DNA","volume":"159","author":"Rongvaux","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aao6047","article-title":"BAK\/BAX macropores facilitate mitochondrial herniation and mtDNA efflux during apoptosis","volume":"359","author":"McArthur","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1038\/s41556-023-01343-1","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA replication stress triggers a pro-inflammatory endosomal pathway of nucleoid disposal","volume":"26","author":"Newman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Cell Biol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.embor.7400878","article-title":"Herpes simplex virus eliminates host mitochondrial DNA","volume":"8","author":"Saffran","year":"2007","journal-title":"EMBO Rep"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11787","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02306-13","article-title":"Mitochondrial nucleases ENDOG and EXOG participate in mitochondrial DNA depletion initiated by herpes simplex virus 1 UL12.5","volume":"87","author":"Duguay","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.09.029","article-title":"Oxysterol restraint of cholesterol synthesis prevents AIM2 inflammasome activation","volume":"171","author":"Dang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11934","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)80156-9","article-title":"Delayed cytotoxicity and selective loss of mitochondrial DNA in cells treated with the anti-human immunodeficiency virus compound 2\u2032,3\u2032-dideoxycytidine","volume":"264","author":"Chen","year":"1989","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpj.2010.09.012","article-title":"Characterization of PicoGreen interaction with dsDNA and the origin of its fluorescence enhancement upon binding","volume":"99","author":"Dragan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biophys J"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2020.01.006","article-title":"Mitochondrial functions in infection and immunity","volume":"30","author":"Tiku","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabi4343","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abi4343","article-title":"Mitochondria shed their outer membrane in response to infection-induced stress","volume":"375","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.115.186270","article-title":"Host mitochondrial association evolved in the human parasite Toxoplasma gondii via neofunctionalization of a gene duplicate","volume":"203","author":"Adomako-Ankomah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2023.02.019","article-title":"Gasdermin-E mediates mitochondrial damage in axons and neurodegeneration","volume":"111","author":"Neel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13663","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.13663","article-title":"Disruption of glycolytic flux is a signal for inflammasome signaling and pyroptotic cell death","volume":"5","author":"Sanman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1038\/nchembio.1023","article-title":"Caspase-1 activity is required to bypass macrophage apoptosis upon Salmonella infection","volume":"8","author":"Puri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat Chem Biol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1006126","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006126","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii GRA7-Targeted ASC and PLD1 promote antibacterial host defense via PKC\u03b1","volume":"13","author":"Koh","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.26508\/lsa.201900549","article-title":"Initial phospholipid-dependent Irgb6 targeting to Toxoplasma gondii vacuoles mediates host defense","volume":"3","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Life Sci Alliance"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.11479","article-title":"Guanylate binding proteins directly attack Toxoplasma gondii via supramolecular complexes","volume":"5","author":"Kravets","year":"2016","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1003320","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003320","article-title":"Guanylate-binding Protein 1 (Gbp1) contributes to cell-autonomous immunity against Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"9","author":"Selleck","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1205635110","article-title":"Murine guanylate binding Protein 2 (mGBP2) controls Toxoplasma gondii replication","volume":"110","author":"Degrandi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2012.06.009","article-title":"A cluster of interferon-\u03b3-inducible p65 gtpases plays a critical role in host defense against Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"37","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2012","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2018.09.010","article-title":"The role of mitochondria in NLRP3 inflammasome activation","volume":"103","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5230","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1301490","article-title":"Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species induces NLRP3-dependent lysosomal damage and inflammasome activation","volume":"191","author":"Heid","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-022-01185-3","article-title":"Mitochondrial electron transport chain is necessary for NLRP3 inflammasome activation","volume":"23","author":"Billingham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e679","DOI":"10.1002\/cpz1.679","article-title":"Generation of mammalian cells devoid of mitochondrial DNA (\u03c10 cells)","volume":"3","author":"Khozhukhar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr Protoc"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1004005","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1004005","article-title":"A highly conserved toxo1 haplotype directs resistance to toxoplasmosis and its associated Caspase-1 dependent killing of parasite and host macrophage","volume":"10","author":"Cavailles","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02388","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02388-18","article-title":"Three Toxoplasma gondii dense granule proteins are required for induction of lewis rat macrophage pyroptosis","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2016.06.006","article-title":"Toxoplasma effector recruits the Mi-2\/NuRD complex to repress STAT1 transcription and block IFN-\u03b3-dependent gene expression","volume":"20","author":"Olias","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17480","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1904637116","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii effector TgIST blocks type I interferon signaling to promote infection","volume":"116","author":"Matta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4047","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-31720-7","article-title":"The intrinsically disordered protein TgIST from Toxoplasma gondii inhibits STAT1 signaling by blocking cofactor recruitment","volume":"13","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1531","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aav4011","article-title":"VDAC oligomers form mitochondrial pores to release mtDNA fragments and promote lupus-like disease","volume":"366","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1370-1385.e8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2022.02.007","article-title":"Article oxidized DNA fragments exit mitochondria via mPTP- and VDAC-dependent channels to activate NLRP3 inflammasome and interferon signaling article oxidized DNA fragments exit mitochondria via mPTP- and VDAC-dependent channels to activate NLRP3 inflamm","volume":"55","author":"Xian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2023.10.004","article-title":"Gasdermin D permeabilization of mitochondrial inner and outer membranes accelerates and enhances pyroptosis","volume":"56","author":"Miao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"2026030112141063100_vkaf360-B86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2013336118","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii association with host mitochondria requires key mitochondrial protein import machinery","volume":"118","author":"Blank","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"}],"container-title":["The Journal of Immunology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jimmunol\/article-pdf\/215\/2\/vkaf360\/67188910\/vkaf360.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jimmunol\/article-pdf\/215\/2\/vkaf360\/67188910\/vkaf360.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]],"date-time":"2026-03-01T17:14:26Z","timestamp":1772385266000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jimmunol\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/jimmun\/vkaf360\/8502625"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"references-count":86,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jimmun\/vkaf360","relation":{},"ISSN":["0022-1767","1550-6606"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0022-1767","type":"print"},{"value":"1550-6606","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"article-number":"vkaf360"}}