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We tested four scenarios in which we modified the number of infected birds arriving in spring, modified the number of infected mosquitoes emerging from their overwintering\/dormancy period, studied the impact of bird abundance on epidemic starting point locations, and examined the progressive shift in mosquito feeding preferences from birds to mammals. First, we observed that WNV amplification may be associated with the arrival of infected migratory birds in the spring, with more severe epidemics as the number of infected birds increases. Secondly, amplification due to the local persistence of WNV virus in surviving infected overwintering female mosquitoes resulted in more severe epidemics in the human population than when amplification was due to the arrival of infected birds. Thirdly, epidemics were more severe when initiated in cells with low bird density than in those with high density. Lastly, the shift in mosquito feeding preference to human blood meals at the end of summer could generate more cases in human populations if reservoir birds delay their migration and stay longer, amplifying the virus locally. A field study is needed to quantify the impact of these mechanisms on WNV reintroduction in southeastern Canada, to better design interventions and early warning systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjaf068","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,5]],"date-time":"2025-08-05T05:44:08Z","timestamp":1754372648000},"page":"1101-1115","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Exploring factors affecting the reintroduction and amplification of West Nile virus in heterogeneous landscapes in Canada, using a cellular automata approach"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"62","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-9964-6778","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Baki","family":"Cisse","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada , St-Hyacinthe ,","place":["Canada"]},{"name":"Groupe de Recherche en \u00c9pid\u00e9miologie des Zoonoses et Sant\u00e9 Publique (GREZOSP), Facult\u00e9 de M\u00e9decine V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al , Saint-Hyacinthe, Qu\u00e9bec ,","place":["Canada"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David R","family":"Lapen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada , Ottawa ,","place":["Canada"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0904-4539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"K","family":"Chalvet-Monfray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 de Lyon, INRAE, VetAgro Sup , UMR EPIA, Marcy l\u2019Etoile ,","place":["France"]},{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Clermont Auvergne, INRAE , VetAgro Sup, UMR EPIA, Saint-Gen\u00e8s-Champanelle ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicholas H","family":"Ogden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada , St-Hyacinthe ,","place":["Canada"]},{"name":"Groupe de Recherche en \u00c9pid\u00e9miologie des Zoonoses et Sant\u00e9 Publique (GREZOSP), Facult\u00e9 de M\u00e9decine V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al , Saint-Hyacinthe, Qu\u00e9bec ,","place":["Canada"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3915-5766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antoinette","family":"Ludwig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada , St-Hyacinthe ,","place":["Canada"]},{"name":"Groupe de Recherche en \u00c9pid\u00e9miologie des Zoonoses et Sant\u00e9 Publique (GREZOSP), Facult\u00e9 de M\u00e9decine V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al , Saint-Hyacinthe, Qu\u00e9bec ,","place":["Canada"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025100818172758700_CIT0001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1086\/508754","article-title":"Importance of vertical and horizontal transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens in the Northeastern United States","volume":"194","author":"Anderson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. 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