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Extensive studies of host\u2013pathogen\u2013vector\u2013environment interactions over the past two decades have illuminated many aspects of the ecology and evolution of WNV and other arboviruses, including the potential for pathogen adaptation to hosts and vectors, the influence of climate, land use and host immunity on transmission ecology, and the difficulty in preventing the establishment of a zoonotic pathogen with abundant wildlife reservoirs. Here, we focus on outstanding questions concerning the introduction, spread, and establishment of WNV in the Americas, and what it can teach us about the future of arboviral introductions. Key gaps in our knowledge include the following: viral adaptation and coevolution of hosts, vectors and the virus; the mechanisms and species involved in the large-scale spatial spread of WNV; how weather modulates WNV transmission; the drivers of large-scale variation in enzootic transmission; the ecology of WNV transmission in Latin America; and the relative roles of each component of host\u2013virus\u2013vector interactions in spatial and temporal variation in WNV transmission. Integrative studies that examine multiple factors and mechanisms simultaneously are needed to advance our knowledge of mechanisms driving transmission.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjz151","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,24]],"date-time":"2019-09-24T07:01:38Z","timestamp":1569308498000},"page":"1448-1455","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":109,"title":["Introduction, Spread, and Establishment of West Nile Virus in the Americas"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"56","author":[{"given":"Laura D","family":"Kramer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Arbovirus Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Albany School of Public Health, Albany, NY"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexander T","family":"Ciota","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Arbovirus Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Albany School of Public Health, Albany, NY"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3612-5775","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A Marm","family":"Kilpatrick","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"2020042505054585500_CIT0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0054","article-title":"Multi-year evolutionary dynamics of West Nile virus in suburban Chicago, USA, 2005-2007","volume":"365","author":"Amore","year":"2010","journal-title":"Philos. 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