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These alterations included atherogenic-like lesions characterized by increased extravasation of blood elements into the arterial subendothelial layers, nuclear expression of c-Fos in endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cells, vascular hyperplasia, foam cell formation, and ultimately vascular rupture. Foam cells were mainly of macrophage\/microglial or of vascular smooth muscle cell origin with upregulated expression of MHC II and of its co-stimulatory molecule CD86, which is characteristic of antigen-presenting cells. Foam cells also upregulated the lysosomal CD68 marker, indicating macrophage\/microglial phagocytic and inflammatory activity. Foam cells of vascular smooth muscle cell origin were present at arteriolar bends, kinks, and bifurcations and were associated with a progressive arterial network degeneration in regions with enlarged perivascular spaces. Foam cell inclusions also contained the gelatinase MMP-9, which is involved in extracellular matrix degradation, and the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-\u03b1 that further induces foam cell formation. These findings indicate that the chronic atherogenic lesions associated with blast-induced vascular degeneration may trigger a progressive pro-inflammatory state and expand the progressive vascular degeneration associated with the PTSD-like phenotype.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/jnen\/nlag026","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,15]],"date-time":"2026-03-15T12:41:10Z","timestamp":1773578470000},"page":"975-991","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Atherogenic-like lesions associated with a progressive chronic vascular degeneration in a rat model of repetitive low-level blast brain injury"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"85","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1064-4451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel A","family":"Gama Sosa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"James J. 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