{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T16:22:29Z","timestamp":1778948549959,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3-4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,16]],"date-time":"2022-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1652659200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>As of early 2022, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic still represents a worldwide medical emergency situation. The ongoing vaccination programs can slow down the spread of the virus; however, from time to time, the newly emerging variants of concern and antivaccination movements carry the possibility for the disease to remain in our daily lives. After the appearance of SARS-CoV-2, there was scholarly debate whether the virus was of natural origin, or it emerged from a laboratory, some even thinking the agent\u2019s potential biological weapon properties suggest the latter scenario. Later, the bioweapon theory was dismissed by the majority of experts, but the question remains that despite its natural origin, how potent a biological weapon the SARS-CoV-2 virus can become over time.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Based on 12 bioweapon threat assessment criteria already published in 2018, we performed a literature search and review, focusing on relevant potential bioweapon properties of the virus SARS-CoV-2. Instead of utilizing a survey among experts, we tried to qualify and quantify characteristics according to the available data found in peer-reviewed papers. We also identified other key elements not mentioned in the original 12 bioweapon criteria, which can play an important role in assessing future biological weapons.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>According to the international literature we analyzed, SARS-CoV-2 is a moderately infectious agent (ID50 estimated between 100 and 1,000), with high infection-to-disease ratio (35%\u201345% rate of asymptomatic infected) and medium incubation period (1\u201334\u2009days, mean 6\u20137\u2009days). Its morbidity and mortality rate can be categorized as medium (high morbidity rate with significant mortality rate). It can be easily produced in large quantities, has high aerosol stability, and has moderate environmental stability. Based on laboratory experiments and statistical model analysis, it can form and is contagious with droplet nuclei, and with spray technique utilization, it could be weaponized effectively. Several prophylactic countermeasures are available in the form of vaccines; however, specific therapeutic options are much more limited. In connection with the original assessment criteria, the SARS-CoV-2 only achieved a \u201c0\u201d score on the ease of detection because of readily available, relatively sensitive, and specific rapid antigen tests. Based on the pandemic experience, we also propose three new assessment categories: one that establishes a mean to measure the necessary quarantine restrictions related to a biological agent, another one that can represent the personal protective equipment required to work safely with a particular agent, and a third one that quantifies the overall disruptive capability, based on previous real-life experiences. These factors could further specify the threat level related to potential biological weapons.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our results show that the virus can become a potent bioweapon candidate in the future, achieving a total score of 24 out of 36 on the original 12 criteria. The SARS-CoV-2 has already proven its pandemic generating potential and, despite worldwide efforts, still remains an imminent threat. In order to be prepared for the future possibility of the virus arising as a bioweapon, we must remain cautious and take the necessary countermeasures.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/usac123","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,16]],"date-time":"2022-05-16T01:46:58Z","timestamp":1652665618000},"page":"531-540","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Analysis of the Virus SARS-CoV-2 as a Potential Bioweapon in Light of International Literature"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"188","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1324-5141","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Csaba Bence","family":"Farkas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Medical Centre, Hungarian Defence Forces , Budapest 1134, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"G\u00e1bor","family":"Dud\u00e1s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mobile Biological Laboratory, Medical Centre, Hungarian Defence Forces , Budapest 1134, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gergely Csaba","family":"Babinszky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mobile Biological Laboratory, Medical Centre, Hungarian Defence Forces , Budapest 1134, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7575-7188","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L\u00e1szl\u00f3","family":"F\u00f6ldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Operations and Support, Faculty of Military Sciences and Officer Training, University of Public Service , Budapest 1101, Hungary"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023033100480046700_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","article-title":"Convention on the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of bacteriological (biological) and toxin weapons and on their destruction","author":"United Nations","DOI":"10.18356\/65783ed9-en"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"2023033100480046700_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S47","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.embor.embor849","article-title":"The history of biological warfare. 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