{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T10:18:23Z","timestamp":1774952303944,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":17,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1-2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,5]],"date-time":"2024-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717545600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is primarily transmitted through blood-to-blood contact. Leading health agencies have called for the elimination of HCV as a public health threat, with universal screening considered a part of the strategy. Hepatitis C virus screening among incoming cadets and cadet candidates at the United States Air Force Academy (USAFA) was implemented in 2023. The purpose of this quality improvement project was to determine the results of this screening and the associated fiscal costs, benefits, and harms to make a recommendation for future incoming classes.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Materials and Methods<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The prevalence of HCV antibody positivity and confirmed HCV infections were calculated among the incoming cadets and cadet candidates at USAFA in summer 2023. Screening was conducted with a highly sensitive HCV total antibody test, and those who screened positive were further tested with a quantitative HCV polymerase chain reaction. The screening and follow-up care costs were calculated, and the potential harm of receiving a false positive notification was considered.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Of the 1,360 persons screened at USAFA in 2023, no confirmed HCV infections were identified. There was one false positive on screening in the cadet population (n\u2009=\u20091,131) and one false positive in the cadet candidate population (n\u2009=\u2009229). The fiscal cost of universal HCV screening upon accession of cadets and cadet candidates, including medical follow-up, was at least $5,279. The opportunity cost was minimal because blood was drawn for other mandatory programs, although screening may have caused social and psychological harm to those receiving a false positive notification.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The prevalence of chronic HCV infection among incoming USAFA cadets and cadet candidates was 0%, below the population screening threshold that warrants screening, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The harms of screening, including fiscal costs and potential psychological harm to individuals with a false positive screen, likely outweigh the benefits. We recommend against universal HCV screening in 2024 upon accession of USAFA cadets and cadet candidates.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/usae273","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,5]],"date-time":"2024-06-05T17:42:42Z","timestamp":1717609362000},"page":"e11-e14","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Review of the U.S. Air Force Academy Hepatitis C Virus Screening Program to Ensure High-Value Care"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"190","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-8098-7966","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Devin C","family":"Kelly","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Preventive Medicine Residency, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences , Bethesda, MD 20814,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Preventive Medicine and Biostatistics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences , 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bryant","family":"Webber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Preventive Medicine Residency, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences , Bethesda, MD 20814,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Preventive Medicine and Biostatistics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences , 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"10th Operational Medical Readiness Squadron, U.S. Air Force Academy , Air Force Academy, CO 80840,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,5]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"2025042508415650200_R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2019.01.001","article-title":"Hepatitis C Virus","volume":"27","author":"Pietschmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol"},{"key":"2025042508415650200_R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad319","article-title":"Hepatitis C Guidance 2023 Update: American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases\u2014Infectious Diseases Society of America Recommendations for testing, managing, and treating Hepatitis C Virus Infection","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025042508415650200_R3","article-title":"Global health sector strategy on viral hepatitis, 2016\u20132021","author":"World Health Organization"},{"key":"2025042508415650200_R4","article-title":"Viral hepatitis national strategic plan for the United States: a roadmap to elimination (2021\u20132025)","year":"2021"},{"key":"2025042508415650200_R5","article-title":"Healthy people 2030, infectious disease","author":"US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"},{"issue":"10","key":"2025042508415650200_R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.1123","article-title":"Screening for Hepatitis C Virus infection in adolescents and adults: US preventive services task force recommendation statement","volume":"323","author":"Owens","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"10","key":"2025042508415650200_R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.20788","article-title":"Screening for Hepatitis C Virus infection in adolescents and adults: updated evidence report and systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force","volume":"323","author":"Chou","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2025042508415650200_R8","article-title":"testing recommendations for Hepatitis C Virus infection","author":"US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"},{"issue":"10","key":"2025042508415650200_R9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad411","article-title":"Estimated prevalence and awareness of Hepatitis C Virus infection among us adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, January 2017-March 2020","volume":"77","author":"Lewis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"2025042508415650200_R10","first-page":"2","article-title":"Diagnosis of hepatitis C infection and cascade of care in the active component, U.S. Armed Forces, 2020","volume":"29","author":"Legg","year":"2022","journal-title":"MSMR"},{"key":"2025042508415650200_R11","article-title":"viral hepatitis. surveillance for viral hepatitis - 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