{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T17:23:55Z","timestamp":1783013035100,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782950400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":182,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"VICONTE","award":["ANR-18-CE28-0015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANR-18-CE28-0015"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Perceptual learning can occur without external feedback, raising questions about what internal signals might guide this learning. Here, we test the hypothesis that confidence, namely the observer\u2019s subjective sense of decision accuracy, is this internal teaching signal. In the present study, participants performed a visual motion discrimination task across 5\u00a0days without feedback. After every two trials, they indicated which decision they were more confident in, using a confidence forced-choice paradigm. In addition, following previous literature, we attempted to manipulate confidence independently of accuracy by varying dot density while holding signal-to-noise ratio constant (overall-strength manipulation), however, this manipulation did not consistently separate confidence from performance. In our study without feedback, we found that some participants improved their performance in the visual task, but other participants failed to become better. Those participants who improved their perceptual thresholds over time (\u201clearners\u201d) also exhibited systematic changes in their confidence computations: not only sensory noise decreased, but confidence efficiency declined due to increases in confidence-specific noise. Learners also showed an increased reliance on additional evidence not used in the perceptual decision itself (confidence boost). Non-learners showed no comparable changes. These results suggest that confidence judgments evolve during perceptual learning and may serve as an index of how internal monitoring adapts during feedback-free training.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/nc\/niag035","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T11:46:33Z","timestamp":1780659993000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Perceptual learning without feedback is accompanied with systematic changes in confidence processing"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"2026","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8429-4020","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nadia","family":"Hosseinizaveh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire des Syst\u00e8mes Perceptifs, D\u00e9partement \u00c9tudes Cognitives, \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure, PSL University , CNRS, 75005 Paris ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pascal","family":"Mamassian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire des Syst\u00e8mes Perceptifs, D\u00e9partement \u00c9tudes Cognitives, \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure, PSL University , CNRS, 75005 Paris ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2004.08.011","article-title":"The reverse hierarchy theory of visual perceptual learning","volume":"8","author":"Ahissar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000511","article-title":"Sensory noise increases metacognitive efficiency","volume":"148","author":"Bang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Gen"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1163\/156856897X00357","article-title":"The psychophysics toolbox","volume":"10","author":"Brainard","year":"1997","journal-title":"Spat Vis"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1712","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.01712","article-title":"Metacognitive accuracy improves with the perceptual learning of a low-but not high-level face property","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1167\/10.13.8","article-title":"Perceptual learning of oriented gratings as revealed by classification images","volume":"10","author":"Dobres","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Vis"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13988","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.23.13988","article-title":"Perceptual learning reflects external noise filtering and internal noise reduction through channel reweighting","volume":"95","author":"Dosher","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/5295.001.0001","volume-title":"Perceptual Learning","author":"Fahle","year":"2002"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1037\/rev0000045","article-title":"Self-evaluation of decision-making: a general bayesian framework for metacognitive computation","volume":"124","author":"Fleming","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82285","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00443","article-title":"How to measure metacognition","volume":"8","author":"Fleming","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ps.14.020163.000333","article-title":"Perceptual learning","volume":"14","author":"Gibson","year":"1963","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1038\/46027","article-title":"Signal but not noise changes with perceptual learning","volume":"402","author":"Gold","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13388","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.13388","article-title":"Mesolimbic con- fidence signals guide perceptual learning in the absence of external feedback","volume":"5","author":"Guggenmos","year":"2016","journal-title":"elife"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(97)00043-6","article-title":"The role of feedback in learning a Vernier discrimination task","volume":"37","author":"Herzog","year":"1997","journal-title":"Vis Res"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref14","unstructured":"Hosseinizaveh N, Mamassian P. Confidence and Perceptual Learning in the Absence of External Feedback [Data Set]. Zenodo, 2026. 10.5281\/zenodo.19609074."},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4966","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.88.11.4966","article-title":"Where practice makes perfect in texture discrimination: evidence for primary visual cortex plasticity","volume":"88","author":"Karni","year":"1991","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177706705","article-title":"Accelerated stochastic approximation","volume":"29","author":"Kesten","year":"1958","journal-title":"Ann Math Stat"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref17","first-page":"1","article-title":"What\u2019s new in psychtoolbox-3?","volume":"36","author":"Kleiner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-015-0843-3","article-title":"Does perceptual confidence facilitate cognitive control?","volume":"77","author":"Koizumi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atten Percept Psychophys"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2009.08.027","article-title":"Modeling mechanisms of perceptual learning with augmented hebbian re-weighting","volume":"50","author":"Lu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vis Res"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-vision-111815-114630","article-title":"Visual confidence","volume":"2","author":"Mamassian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu Rev Vis Sci"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1177\/0301006620928010","article-title":"Confidence forced-choice and other metaperceptual tasks","volume":"49","author":"Mamassian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref22","unstructured":"Mamassian P . Confidence Forced-Choice (Toolbox Version 1.0). Zenodo, 2023. 10.5281\/zenodo.7791434."},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1037\/rev0000312","article-title":"Modeling perceptual confidence and the confidence forced-choice paradigm","volume":"129","author":"Mamassian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2011.09.021","article-title":"A signal detection theoretic approach for estimating metacognitive sensitivity from confidence ratings","volume":"21","author":"Maniscalco","year":"2012","journal-title":"Conscious Cogn"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref25","volume-title":"The Relative Psychometric Function: A General Analysis Framework for Relating Psychological Processes","author":"Maniscalco","year":"2020"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E1588","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1711628115","article-title":"Superior colliculus neuronal ensemble activity signals optimal rather than subjective confidence","volume":"115","author":"Odegaard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1163\/156856897X00366","article-title":"The VideoToolbox software for visual psychophysics: Transforming numbers into movies","volume":"10","author":"Pelli","year":"1997","journal-title":"Spat Vis"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.112.4.715","article-title":"The dynamics of perceptual learning: An incremental reweighting model","volume":"112","author":"Petrov","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2006.03.022","article-title":"Perceptual learning without feedback in non-stationary contexts: Data and model","volume":"46","author":"Petrov","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vis Res"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2026.108831","article-title":"Confidence-accuracy dissociations in perceptual decision making","volume":"244","author":"Rahnev","year":"2026","journal-title":"Vis Res"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2634","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16278-6","article-title":"Confidence drives a neural confirmation bias","volume":"11","author":"Rollwage","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.00851","article-title":"Dissociating perceptual confidence from discrimination accuracy reveals no influence of metacognitive awareness on working memory","volume":"7","author":"Samaha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2737","article-title":"Advances in visual perceptual learning and plasticity","volume":"11","author":"Sasaki","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1995.sp020623","article-title":"Human perceptual learning in identifying the oblique orientation: Retinotopy, orientation specificity and monocularity","volume":"483","author":"Schoups","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02212307","article-title":"Metacognitive theories","volume":"7","author":"Schraw","year":"1995","journal-title":"Educ Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1916","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.2001.86.4.1916","article-title":"Neural basis of a perceptual decision in the parietal cortex (area LIP) of the rhesus monkey","volume":"86","author":"Shadlen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2011.02.004","article-title":"Perceptual learning in visual hyper- acuity: a reweighting model","volume":"51","author":"Sotiropoulos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vis Res"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2009.02.013","article-title":"Perceptual learning and roving: Stimulus types and overlapping neural populations","volume":"49","author":"Tartaglia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vis Res"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2086","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00970.2002","article-title":"Learning and adaptation in a recurrent model of v1 orientation selectivity","volume":"89","author":"Teich","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1038\/35101601","article-title":"Perceptual learning without perception","volume":"413","author":"Watanabe","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20761","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-77820-6","article-title":"Overlapping and unique neural circuits are activated during perceptual decision making and confidence","volume":"10","author":"Yeon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0151218","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0151218","article-title":"Metacognitive confidence increases with, but does not determine, visual perceptual learning","volume":"11","author":"Zizlsperger","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2026070212240635700_ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.3389\/fnint.2012.00079","article-title":"The construction of confidence in a perceptual decision","volume":"6","author":"Zylberberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front Integr Neurosci"}],"container-title":["Neuroscience of Consciousness"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/nc\/article-pdf\/2026\/1\/niag035\/68683427\/niag035.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/nc\/article-pdf\/2026\/1\/niag035\/68683427\/niag035.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T16:57:56Z","timestamp":1783011476000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/nc\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/nc\/niag035\/8723669"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/nc\/niag035","relation":{},"ISSN":["2057-2107"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2057-2107","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"article-number":"niag035"}}