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If we define the variance ratio of reproductive-output in males and females as \u03b1\u2032\u00a0=\u00a0VM\/VF, the ERO hypothesis would predict \u03b1\u2032 \u226b 1. Since autosomal, X, and, Y chromosomes are found in males 1\/2, 1\/3, and 100% of the time, their DNA diversities can inform about \u03b1\u2032. For example, autosomal and Y-linked diversities are governed, respectively, by (VM\u00a0+\u00a0VF)\/2 and VM. When comparing the chromosomal diversities, \u03b1\u2032 appears to be near 20 for chimpanzees and orangutans, and 1\u201310 for gorillas. The exception is bonobos with \u03b1\u2032\u00a0&amp;lt;\u00a01. In humans, extensive genomic data are coupled to a theory, developed herein, that can filter out selection influences on Y-linked diversities. Hence, the estimation of \u03b1\u2032 is rigorous, yielding values near or above 20, depending on the population. When \u03b1\u2032\u00a0&amp;gt;\u00a010, the presence of ERO males is very likely. These analyses can be applied more generally to species with XY sex determination.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwaf257","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,27]],"date-time":"2025-06-27T08:02:45Z","timestamp":1751011365000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Genomic evidence for males of exceptional reproductive output (ERO) in apes and humans"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Xiaopei","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University , Guangzhou 510275 ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hongpu","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Genetics and Development of Complex Phenotypes, Center for Evolutionary Biology, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University , Shanghai 200438 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